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Did COVID-19 Increase Xenophobia? Results from a Four-wave Longitudinal Study

The global pandemic brought unprecedented challenges and changes to societies worldwide. Beyond the immediate health crisis, there was a significant impact on our social lives. One area of concern was whether the heightened risk of infectious diseases would lead to increased xenophobia—fear or hatred of foreigners and immigrants. A popular hypothesis from the behavioral immune system literature said yes. It suggests that negative attitudes toward outgroups serve pathogen-neutralizing functions.

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Have you ever heard of Lipsmacking?

Lipsmacking behaviour is a rhythmic facial expression (rapid closing and opening of the mouth) observed in many non-human primate species. It is an affiliative signal, which means that it sends a positive message and promotes affiliative interactions. Emotional regulation is central to the occurrence of affiliative behaviours since they require one individual to express their sensations and motivations and another individual to perceive the emotions of the first. Animals must regulate their emotional experience. For this emotional regulation to occur, signals, such as the lipsmacking behaviour, are produced for the exchange of emotional information. In capuchin monkeys, lipsmacking is usually directed at infants.

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