Disaster ecology: implications for disaster psychiatry

James M. Shultz; Zelde Espinel; Sandro Galea; Dori B. Reissman

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511544415.005

4 - Disaster ecology: implications for disaster psychiatry

from Part II - Foundations of disaster psychiatry

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 09 August 2009

Sandro Galea and

Edited by

Lars Weisaeth and

James M. Shultz: Affiliation:
Director, Center for Disaster and Extreme Event University of Miami Miller School of Medicine
Zelde Espinel: Affiliation:
Center for Disaster and Extreme Event University of Miami Miller School of Medicine
Sandro Galea: Affiliation:
Associate Professor The University of Michigan
Dori B. Reissman: Affiliation:
Senior Medical Advisor National Institute for Occupational Safety
Robert J. Ursano: Affiliation:
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Maryland
Carol S. Fullerton: Affiliation:
Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Maryland
Lars Weisaeth: Affiliation:
Universitetet i Oslo
Beverley Raphael: Affiliation:
University of Western Sydney

Book contents

Get access

Summary

The nature of disaster from an ecological perspective

When disaster strikes, individuals, families, and entire communities are subjected to powerful forces of harm. Yet, exposure to disaster impact is only the opening salvo. As the disaster unfolds, and far into the aftermath, affected populations grapple with loss and change, consequences that persevere long after the risk for physical harm has dissipated. This trilogy of forces – exposure to hazard, massive personal and societal loss, and profound and enduring life change – characterizes the nature of disaster. Thus we define a disaster as an encounter between a hazard (forces of harm) and a human population in harm's way, influenced by the ecological context, creating demands that exceed the coping capacity of the affected community (Landesman, 2001; Noji, 1997a; Quarantelli, 1985, 1995, 1998; Shultz et al., 2007; Somasundaram et al., 2003; World Health Organization, 1999).

Disasters are population-based phenomena. According to Raphael (2000), “Disasters can have widespread and devastating impact on individuals, families, communities and nations.” Disasters are collective, community-wide events, necessitating simultaneous consideration of issues residing within a person, or between persons, or between persons and their community and society. We propose an ecological frame of reference to concurrently consider the interplay of these factors as they pertain to disaster's forces of harm: exposure, loss, and change.

Keywords

community-level factors disaster ecological framework disaster psychiatry disaster risk individual-family factors psychosocial impact health services forces of harm social services societal-structural factors

Type: Chapter
Information: Textbook of Disaster Psychiatry , pp. 69 - 96

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511544415.005 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, R. D. (1990). Earthquake occurrence and effects. Injury, 21, 17–20.Google Scholar

Agence France Presse (2005). Musharraf defends handling of devastating pakistan quake. Available at: http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/document?_m=6509211fbe72cf882063e380faffa66e&_docnum=1&wchp=dGLbVlz-zSkVb&_md5=715c332a1eb5c90f4eeb04ec85375da7. Accessed October 27, 2005.

Alexander, D. (1993). Natural Disasters. New York: Chapman & Hall.

Alexander, D. (1996). The health effects of earthquakes in the mid-1990s. Disasters, 20, 231–247.Google Scholar

Barnett, D. J., Balicer, R. D., Blodgett, D.et al. (2005a). The application of the Haddon Matrix to public health readiness and response planning. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113, 561–566.Google Scholar

Barnett, D. J., Balicer, R. D., Lucey, D. R.et al. (2005b). A systematic analytic approach to pandemic influenza preparedness planning. PLoS Medicine, 2, 1235–1241.Google Scholar

Barnett, E. & Casper, M. (2001). A definition of “social environment.”American Journal of Public Health, 91, 465.Google Scholar

Berkman, L. & Kawachi, I. (eds.) (2000). Social Epidemiology.New York: Oxford University Press.

Blakely, T. A. & Woodward, A. J. (2000). Ecological effects in multi-level studies. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 54, 367–374.Google Scholar

Bode, B. (1989). No Bells to Toll Destruction and Creation in the Andes.New York: Scribners.

Butler, A. S., Panzer, A. M. & Goldfrank, L. R. (2003). Institute of Medicine Committee on Responding to the Psychological Consequences of Terrorism Board of on Neuroscience and Behavioral Health. Preparing for the Psychological Consequences of Terrorism: A Public Health Approach.Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.

Casey, M. M., Thiede Call, K. & Klingner, J. M. (2001). Are rural residents less likely to obtain recommended preventive healthcare services?American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21, 182–188.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2004). Epidemiologic assessment of the impact of four hurricanes – Florida, 2004. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 54, 693–697.

Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) (2005). EM-DAT Data Base. Brussels: Universite Catholique de Louvain.

Cheadle, A., Psaty, B. M., Curry, S.et al. (1991). Community-level comparisons between the grocery store environment and individual dietary practices. Preventive Medicine, 20, 250–261.Google Scholar

Chisholm, R. F., Kasl, S. V. & Mueller, L. (1986). The effects of social support on nuclear worker responses to the Three Mile Island accident. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 7, 179–193.Google Scholar

Cochrane, R. & Bal, S. (1990). The drinking habits of Sikh, Hindu, Muslim and white men in the west midlands: a community survey. British Journal of Addictions, 85, 759–769.Google Scholar

Corso, P. S., Kramer, M. H., Blair, K. A.et al. (2003). Cost of illness in the 1993 waterborne cryptosporidium outbreak, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 9, 426–431.Google Scholar

Daley, R. W., Brown, S., Archer, P.et al. (2005). Risk of tornado-related death and injury in Oklahoma, May 3, 1999. American Journal of Epidemiology, 161, 1144–1150.Google Scholar

Diez-Roux, A. V. (2001). Investigating neighborhood and area effects on health. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 11783–11789.Google Scholar

Diez-Roux, A. V., Nieto, F. J., Muntaner, C.et al. (1997). Neighborhood environments and coronary heart disease: a multilevel analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology, 146, 48–63.Google Scholar

Esty, D. C. & Ivanova, I. (eds.) (2002). Global Environmental Governance: Options and Opportunities. New Haven, CT: Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies.

Felt-Lisk, S., McHugh, M. & Howell, E. (2002). Monitoring local safety-net providers: do they have adequate capacity?Health Affairs, 21, 277–283.Google Scholar

Fissel, A. & Haddix, K. (2004). Traditional healer organizations in Uganda should contribute to AIDS debate. Anthropology News, 45, 10–11.Google Scholar

Fothergill, A. (1996). Gender, risk and disaster. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 3, 49–56.Google Scholar

Fothergill, A. & Peek, L. A. (2004). Poverty and disasters in the United States: a review of recent sociological findings. Natural Hazards, 32, 89–110.Google Scholar

Fothergill, A., Maestas, E. G. M. & DeRoune, J. A. (1999). Race, ethnicity and disasters in the United States: a review of the literature. Disasters, 23, 156–173.Google Scholar

Fox, A. (2003). Glossary of epidemiological terms. International Journal of Pediatrics and Neonatalogy, 3(1).Google Scholar

Freudenberg, N., Silver, D., Carmona, J. M.et al. (2000). Health promotion in the city: a structured review of the literature on interventions to prevent heart disease, substance abuse, violence and HIV infection in U. S. metropolitan areas, 1980–1995. Journal of Urban Health, 77, 443–457.Google Scholar

Friedman, F. (1989). Donor policies and third world health. International Health Development, 1, 16–17.Google Scholar

Fullerton, C. S., McCarroll, J. E., Ursano, R. J. & Wright, K. M. (1992). Psychological responses of rescue workers: fire fighters and trauma. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 62, 371–378.Google Scholar

Galea, S. & Resnick, H. (2005). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population after mass terrorist incidents: considerations about the nature of exposure. CNS Spectrums, 10, 107–115.Google Scholar

Gans, H. (1995). The War Against the Poor: The Underclass and Antipoverty Policy.New York: Basic Books.

Garrett, L. (2000). Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health. New York: Oxford University Press.

Gillen, M. (2005). Urban governance and vulnerability: exploring the tensions and contradictions in Sydney's response to bushfire threat. Cities, 22, 55–64.Google Scholar

Goenjian, A. K., Molina, L., Steinberg, A. M.et al. (2001). Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among Nicaraguan adolescents after Hurricane Mitch. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 788–794.Google Scholar

Grieger, T. A., Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J. & Reeves, J. J. (2003). Acute stress disorder, alcohol use, and perception of safety among hospital staff after sniper attacks. Psychiatric Service, 54, 1383–1387.Google Scholar

Guha-Sapir, D., Hargitt, D. & Hoyois, P. (2004). Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. Thirty Years of Natural Disasters: 1974–2003: The Numbers.Louvain-la-Neuve: Presses Universitaires de Louvain.

Haddon, W. Jr. (1972). A logical framework for organizing highway safety phenomena and activity. Journal of Trauma, 12, 193–207.Google Scholar

Haddon, W. Jr. (1980). Advances in the epidemiology of injuries as a basis for public policy. Public Health Reports, 95, 411–421.Google Scholar

Halpern, R. (1995). Rebuilding the Inner City. A History of Neighborhood Initiatives to Address Poverty in the United States.New York: Columbia University Press.

Hatch, M., Ron, E., Bouville, L., Zablotska, L. & Howe, G. (2005). The Chernobyl disaster: cancer following the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Epidemiologic Reviews, 27, 56–66.Google Scholar

Henrich, J. & McElreath, R. (2003). The evolution of cultural evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology, 12, 123–135.Google Scholar

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (1996). World Disasters Report 1996. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jernigan, D. B., Raghunathan, P. L., Bell, B. P.et al. (2002). Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10, 1019–1028.Google Scholar

Kaniasty, K. & Norris, F. (1993). A test of the support deterioration model in the context of natural disaster. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 395–408.Google Scholar

Kaplan, G. A. (1999). What is the role of the social environment in understanding inequalities in health?Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 116–119.Google Scholar

Kaplan, G. A. (2004). What's wrong with social epidemiology and how can we make it better?Epidemiological Reviews, 26, 124–135.Google Scholar

Karpati, A., Galea, S., Awerbuch, T. & Levins, R. (2002). Variability and vulnerability at the ecological level: implications for understanding the social determinants of health. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 1768–1772.Google Scholar

Katz, M. (1989). The Undeserving Poor. From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare.New York: Pantheon.

Kawachi, I. & Berkman, L. F. (2001). Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban Health, 78, 458–467.Google Scholar

Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., Lochner, K. & Prothrow-Stith, D. (1997). Social capital, income inequality, and mortality. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 1491–1498.Google Scholar

Kennedy, B. P., Kawachi, I., Prothrow-Stith, D., Lochner, K. & Gupta, V. (1998). Social capital, income inequality, and firearm violent crime. Social Science and Medicine, 47, 7–17.Google Scholar

Kious, J. W. & Tilling, R. I. (1996). This dynamic Earth: the story of plate tectonics. Available at the US Geological Survey site: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/dynamic.html. Accessed May 1, 2007.

Kirschenbaum, A. (2004). Chaos Organization and Disaster Management. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Krewski, D., Balbus, J., Butler-Jones, D.et al. (2002). Managing health risks from drinking water – a report to the Walkerton inquiry. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 65, 1635–1823.Google Scholar

Krieger, N. (1994). Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider?Social Science and Medicine, 39, 887–903.Google Scholar

Krieger, N. (2001). Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: an ecosocial perspective. International Journal of Epidemiology, 30, 668–677.Google Scholar

Kumar-Range, S. (2001). Environmental management and disaster risk reduction: a gender perspective. United Nations: Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW). Available at http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/env_manage/documents/BP1-2001Nov04.pdf. Accessed May 1, 2007.

Lakoff, A. (2005). From disaster to catastrophe: the limits of preparedness. In: The Social Science Research Council website. Understanding Katrina: Perspectives from the Social Sciences. Available at http://understandingkatrina.ssrc.org/Lakoff/. Accessed May 1, 2007.

Landesman, L. Y. (2001). Public Health Management of Disasters: The Practice Guide.Washington, D.C.: American Public Health Association.

Last, J. M. (ed.) (2001). A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 4th edn.New York: Oxford University Press.

Lilienfeld, D. E. & Stolley, P. D. (1994). Foundations of Epidemiology, 3rd edn.New York: Oxford University Press.

Lincoln, C. E. & Mamiya, L. H. (1990). The Black Church in the African American Experience.Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.

Logue, J. N., Melick, M. E. & Hansen, H. (1981). Research issues and directions in the epidemiology of health effects of disasters. Epidemiologic Reviews, 3, 140–162.Google Scholar

Mackenbach, J. (1993). Public health epidemiology. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 49, 333–334.Google Scholar

Mahue-Giangreco, M., Mack, W., Seligson, H. & Bourque, L. B. (2001). Risk factors associated with moderate and serious injuries attributable to the 1994 Northridge earthquake, Los Angeles, California. Annals of Epidemiology, 11, 347–357.Google Scholar

Mandelblatt, J. S., Yabroff, K. R. & Kerner, J. F. (1999). Equitable access to cancer services: a review of barriers to quality care. Cancer, 86, 2378–2390.Google Scholar

Marsella, A. J. & Christopher, M. A. (2004). Ethnocultural considerations in disasters: an overview of research, issues, and directions. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27, 521–539.Google Scholar

McLeod, L. & Kessler, R. (1990). Socioecological status differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 162–172.Google Scholar

McMichael, A. J. (1999). Prisoners of the proximate: loosening the constraints on epidemiology in an age of change. American Journal of Epidemiology, 149, 887–897.Google Scholar

Morrow, B. H. (1997). Stretching the bonds: the families of Andrew. In Hurricane Andrew: Ethnicity, Gender, and the Sociology of Disasters, eds. Peacock, W. G., Morrow, B. H. & Gladwin, H., pp. 141–170. London: Routledge.

Nates, J. L. & Moyer, V. A. (2005). Lessons from hurricane Katrina, tsunamis, and other disasters. Lancet, 366, 1144–1146.Google Scholar

Noji, E. K. (ed.) (1997a). The Public Health Consequences of Disasters.New York: Oxford University Press.

Noji, E. K. (ed.) (1997b). Earthquakes. In The Public Health Consequences of Disasters, pp. 35–78. New York: Oxford University Press.

Norris, F. H. (2005). Psychosocial consequences of natural disasters in developing countries: what does past research tell us about the potential effects of the 2004 tsunami? Available at National Center for PTSD, US Department of Veteran's Affairs site: www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/ncdocs/fact_shts/fs_tsunami_research.html?opm=1&rr=rr81&srt=d&echorr=true.

Norris, F. H. & Kaniasty, K. (1996). Received and perceived social support in times of stress: a test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 498–511.Google Scholar

Norris, F. H. & Kaniasty, K. (2004). Social support in the aftermath of disasters, catastrophes, and acts of terrorism. In Bioterrorism: Psychological and Public Health Interventions, eds. Ursano, R., Norwood, A. & Fullerton, C., pp. 200–229. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Norris, F., Friedman, M., Watson, P.et al. (2002a). 60 000 disaster victims speak, part 1: An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry, 65, 207–239.Google Scholar

Norris, F., Friedman, M. & Watson, P. (2002b). 60 000 disaster victims speak, part 2: Summary and implications of the disaster mental health research. Psychiatry, 65, 204–260.Google Scholar

Oliver-Smith, A. (1996). Anthropological research on hazards and disasters. Annual Review of Anthropology, 25, 303–328.Google Scholar

Pearce, N. (1996). Traditional epidemiology, modern epidemiology, and public health. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 678–683.Google Scholar

Peek-Asa, C., Ramirez, M. R., Shoaf, K., Seligson, H. & Kraus, J. F. (2000). GIS mapping of earthquake-related deaths and hospital admissions from the 1994 Northridge, California, earthquake. Annals of Epidemiology, 10, 5–13.Google Scholar

Peek-Asa, C., Ramirez, M., Seligson, H. & Shoaf, K. (2003). Seismic, structural, and individual factors associated with earthquake related injury. Injury Prevention, 9, 62–66.Google Scholar

Pfefferbaum, B., Reissman, D. B., Pfefferbaum, R. L., Klomp, R. W. & Gurwitch, R. H. (2006). Building resilience to mass trauma events. In Handbook of Injury and Violence Prevention., eds. L. Doll, S.Bonzo, J.Mercy & D. Sleet. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

Pickett, K. E. & Pearl, M. (2001). Multilevel analyses of neighborhood socioecological context and health outcomes: a critical review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 111–122.Google Scholar

Poundstone, K. E., Strathdee, S. A. & Celentano, D. D. (2004). The social epidemiology of human immuno-deficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Epidemiologic Reviews, 26, 22–35.Google Scholar

Quarantelli, E. L. (1985). Social support systems: some behavioral patterns in the context of mass evacuation activities. In Disasters and Mental Health: Selected Contemporary Perspectives, ed. Sowder, B., pp. 122–136. Rockville, Md.: National Institute of Mental Health.

Quarantelli, E. L. (1995). What is a disaster? Six views of the problem. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 13, 221–229.Google Scholar

Quarantelli, E. L. (ed.) (1998). What is a Disaster? Perspectives on the Question. London: Routledge.

Quarantelli, E. L. (2005). Catastrophes are different from disasters: some implications for crisis planning and managing drawn from Katrina. In: The Social Science Research Council website: Understanding Katrina: Perspectives from the Social Sciences. Available at http://understandingkatrina.ssrc.org/Quarantelli/. Accessed May 1, 2007.

Quarantelli, E. L. (2006). Emergencies, disasters, and catastrophes are different phenomena. Available at http://www.udel.edu/DRC/preliminary/pp304.pdf. Accessed May 1, 2007.

Ramirez, M. & Peek-Asa, C. (2005). Epidemiology of traumatic injuries from earthquakes. Epidemiologic Reviews, 27, 47–55.Google Scholar

Raphael, B. (2000). Disaster Mental Health Response Handbook: An Educational Resource for Mental Health Professionals Involved in Disaster Management.Sydney: NSW Health.

Reissman, D. B., Spencer, S., Tannielian, T. & Stein, B. D. (2005). Integrating behavioral aspects into community preparedness and response systems. In The Trauma of Terrorism: Sharing Knowledge and Shared Care, an International Handbook, eds. Danieli, Y., Brom, D. & Sills, J.. New York: Haworth Maltreatment and Trauma Press. [Published simultaneously as the Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 9, nos. 1/2 and nos. 3/4.]

Ritchie, E. C., Watson, P. J. & Friedman, M. J. (eds.) (2005). Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters: Strategies for Mental Health Practice. New York: Guilford Press.

Rovai, E. L. (1994). The social geography of disaster recovery: differential community response to the north coast earthquakes. In Yearbook of the Association of Pacific Coast Geographers, vol. 56, ed. , D. E. Turbeville. Oregon: Oregon State University Press.

Rundell, J. R. & Christopher, G. W. (2004). Differentiating manifestations of infection from psychiatric disorders and fears of having been exposed to bioterrorism. In Bioterrorism: Psychological and Public Health Interventions, eds. Ursano, R. J., Norwood, A. E. & Fullerton, C. S., pp. 88–108. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Runyan, C. (1998). Using the Haddon Matrix: introducing the third dimension. Injury Prevention, 4, 302–307.Google Scholar

Rutherford, W. H. & de Boer, J. (1983). The definition and classification of disasters. Injury, 15, 10–12.Google Scholar

Sarewitz, D. & Pielke, R. A. Jr (2001). Extreme events: a research and policy framework for disasters in context. International Geology Review 43, 406–418.Google Scholar

Science, (2005). Dealing with Disasters (special section of brief articles.). Science, 309, 1029–1046. Available at: www.sciencemag.org/sciext/disasters. Accessed on May 1, 2007.

Shipton, P. (1990). African famines and food insecurity: anthropological perspectives. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19, 353–394.Google Scholar

Shoaf, K. I., Sareen, H. R., Nguyen, L. H. & Bourque, L. B. (1998). Injuries as a result of California earthquakes in the past decade. Disasters, 22, 218–235.Google Scholar

Shultz, J. M., Russell, J. & Espinel, Z. (2005). Epidemiology of tropical cyclones: the dynamics of disaster, disease, and development. Epidemiologic Reviews, 27, 21–35.Google Scholar

Shultz, J. M., Espinel, Z., Flynn, B. W., Cohen, R. E. & Hoffman, Y. (2007). DEEP PREP: All Hazards Disaster Behavioral Health Training. Tampa, FL: Disaster Life Support Publishing.

Simkin, T., Unger, J. D. & Tilling, R. I. et al. (2004). The dynamic planet: world map of volcanoes, earthquakes, impact craters, and plate tectonics. Available at US Geological Survey site: http://pubs.usgs.gov/pdf/planet.html. Accessed May 1, 2007.

Skrabski, A., Kobb, M. & Kawachi, I. (2004). Social capital and collective efficacy in Hungary: cross sectional associations with middle aged female and male mortality rates. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 58, 340–345.Google Scholar

Solomon, Z. (1985). Stress, social support and affective disorders in mothers of pre-school children: a test of the stress-buffering effect of social support. Social Psychiatry, 20, 100–105.Google Scholar

Somasundaram, D., Norris, F. H., Asukai, N. & Murthy, R. S. (2003). Natural and technological disasters. In Trauma Interventions in War and Peace: Prevention, Practice, and Policy, eds. Green, B. L., Friedman, M. J., Jong, J., et al., pp. 291–318. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

Sooman, A., Macintyre, S. & Anderson, A. (1993). Scotland's health – a more difficult challenge for some? The price and allocation of healthy foods in social contrasting localities in the west of Scotland. Health Bulletin, 51, 276–284.Google Scholar

Staab, J. P., Grieger, T. A., Fullerton, C. S. & Ursano, R. J. (1996). Acute stress disorder, subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression after a series of typhoons. Anxiety, 2, 219–225.Google Scholar

Subramanian, S. V., Kim, D. J. & Kawachi, I. (2002). Social trust and self-rated health in U.S. communities: a multilevel analysis. Journal of Urban Health, 79, S21–S34.Google Scholar

Susser, M. (1994). The logic of ecological. 1: The logic of analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 825–829.Google Scholar

Susser, M. (1998). Does risk factor epidemiology put epidemiology at risk? Peering into the future. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 52, 608–611.Google Scholar

Susser, M. & Susser, E. (1996). Choosing a future for epidemiology. II. From black boxes to Chinese boxes and eco-epidemiology. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 674–677.Google Scholar

Thomas, S. B., Quinn, S. C., Billingley, A. & Caldwell, C. (1994). The characteristics of northern black churches with community health outreach programs. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 575–579.Google Scholar

Torry, W. I. (1986). Economic development, drought, and famine: some limitations of dependency explanations. Geojournal, 12, 5–18.Google Scholar

United Nations Development Program (2004). Reducing Disaster Risk: A Challenge for Development. Available at United Nations Development Program, Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery site: www.undp.org/bcpr. Accessed May 1, 2007.

Ursano, R. J. (2002). Terrorism and mental health: public health and primary care. Presentation at the Eighteenth Annual Rosalyn Carter Symposium on Mental Health Policy. Status Report: Meeting the Mental Health Needs of the Country in the Wake of September 11, 2001. November 6–7, 2002. Atlanta, GA.: The Carter Center.

Ursano, R. J., Fullerton, C. S. & McGaughey, B. G. (1994). Trauma and disaster. In Individual and Community Responses to Trauma and Disaster: The Structure of Human Chaos, eds. Ursano, R. J., McGaughey, B. G. & Fullerton, C. S., pp. 3–27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Williams, D. R. & Collins, C. (2002). Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. In: Race, Ethnicity and Health: A Public Health Reader, ed. LaVeist, T. A., pp. 369–390. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey Bass.

Williams, D. R., Lavizzo-Mourey, R. & Warren, R. C. (1994). The concept of race and health status in America. Public Health Reports, 109, 26–41.Google Scholar

Woodward, A. (1996). What makes populations vulnerable to ill health?New Zealand Medical Journal, 109, 265–267.Google Scholar

World Bank (2005). Natural Disaster Hotspots: A Global Risk Analysis.Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group.

World Health Organization/EHA/EHTP (1999). Emergency Health Training Programme for Africa. Training Modules.Geneva: World Health Organization.

World Health Organization (2002). Gender and health in disasters. Available at http://www.who.int/gender/other_health/en/genderdisasters.pdf. Accessed May 1, 2007.

World Health Organization (2005). Health action in relation to crises and emergencies. WHO Fifty-Eighth World Health Assembly, Provisional Agenda Item 13.3. Geneva: World Health Organization.

Zhao, C., Wang, X., Gao, L.et al. (2000). Longitudinal study of earthquake-related PTSD in North China. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 14, 361–363.Google Scholar

Book contents

4 - Disaster ecology: implications for disaster psychiatry

Summary

Keywords

Access options

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive