References
American Medical Association Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs [AMA CEJA]. Modification of Ethics Policy to Ensure Inclusion for Transgender Physicians, Medical Students, and Patients. Report of the Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, CEJA Report 2-I-07, 2007. https://bit.ly/3Os5G56. American Medical Association Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs Code of Medical Ethics. Chicago, IL: American Medical Association, 2017.
Annas, George J. Transferring the Ethical Hot Potato. Hastings Center Report 17 (1987): 20–21.
Arras, John D. A Method in Search of a Purpose: The Internal Morality of Medicine. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26 (2001): 643–62.
Ashford, Elizabeth. Utilitarianism, Integrity, and Partiality. Journal of Philosophy 97 (2000): 421–39.
Baier, Annette. Trust and Antitrust. Ethics 96 (1986): 231–60.
Bayles, Michael D. A Problem of Clean Hands: Refusal to Provide Professional Services. Social Theory and Practice 5 (1979): 165–81.
Beauchamp, Tom L., and Childress, James F.. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. Eighth ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019.
Belliotti, Raymond A. Negative and Positive Duties. Theoria 47 (1981): 82–92.
Ben-Moshe, Nir. The Truth Behind Conscientious Objection in Medicine. Journal of Medical Ethics 45 (2019): 404–10.
Ben-Moshe, Nir Conscientious Objection in Medicine: Making It Public. HEC Forum 33 (2021): 269–89.
Bigelow, John, and Pargettre, Robert. Integrity and Autonomy. American Philosophical Quarterly 44 (2007): 39–49.
Blustein, Jeffrey. Doing What the Patient Orders: Maintaining Integrity in the Doctor–Patient Relationship. Bioethics 7 (1993): 289–314.
Boorse, Christopher. Concepts of Health and Disease. In Handbook of the Philosophy of Science, edited by Gifford, Fred, 13–64. Oxford: Elsevier, 2011.
Brock, Dan. Conscientious Refusal by Physicians and Pharmacists: Who Is Obligated to Do What, and Why? Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 29 (2008): 187–200.
Brownlee, Kimberley. Conscience and Conviction: The Case for Civil Disobedience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Brummett, Abram L. Should Positive Claims of Conscience Receive the Same Protection As Negative Claims of Conscience? Clarifying the Asymmetry Debate. Journal of Clinical Ethics 31 (2020): 136–42.
Buetow, Stephen, and Gauld, Natalie. Conscientious Objection and Person‑Centered Care. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 39 (2018): 143–55.
Butler, Joseph. Five Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel and a Dissertation upon the Nature of Virtue. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983.
Byrnes, Jeffrey. The Problem of “Core Moral Beliefs” as the Ground of Conscientious Objection. HEC Forum 33 (2021): 291–305.
Calhoun, Cheshire. Standing for Something. Journal of Philosophy 92 (1995): 235–60.
Card, Robert F. Conscientious Objection and Emergency Contraception. American Journal of Bioethics 7 (2007): 8–14.
Card, Robert F. Conscientious Objection, Emergency Contraception, and Public Policy. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 36 (2011): 53–58.
Card, Robert F. Reasonability and Conscientious Objection in Medicine: A Reply to Marsh and an Elaboration of the Reason-Giving Requirement. Bioethics 28 (2014): 320–26.
Card, Robert F. In Defence of Medical Tribunals and the Reasonability Standard for Conscientious Objection in Medicine. Journal of Medical Ethics 42 (2016): 73–75.
Card, Robert F. Reasons, Reasonability and Establishing Conscientious Objector Status in Medicine. Journal of Medical Ethics 43 (2017a): 222–25.
Card, Robert F. The Inevitability of Assessing Reasons in Debates about Conscientious Objection in Medicine. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 26 (2017b): 82–96.
Card, Robert F. A New Theory of Conscientious Objection in Medicine: Justification and Reasonability. New York: Routledge, 2020.
Chervenak, Frank A., and McCullough, Laurence B.. The Ethics of Direct and Indirect Referral for Termination of Pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 199 (2008): 232e1–32e3.
Childress, James F. Appeals to Conscience. Ethics 89 (1979): 315–35.
Childress, James F. Civil Disobedience, Conscientious Objection, and Evasive Noncompliance: A Framework for the Analysis and Assessment of Illegal Actions in Health Care. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 10 (1985): 63–83.
Clarke, Steve. Some Difficulties Involved in Locating the Truth behind Conscientious Objection in Medicine. Journal of Medical Ethics 45 (2019): 679–80.
Committee on Doctrine of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Health Care Services. 6th edition, 2018. https://bit.ly/42uz6VU. Cowley, Christopher. Conscientious Objection and Healthcare in the UK: Why Tribunals Are Not the Answer. Journal of Medical Ethics 42 (2016a): 69–72.
Cowley, Christopher A Defence of Conscientious Objection in Medicine: A Reply to Schuklenk and Savulescu. Bioethics 30 (2016b): 358–64.
Cowley, Christopher Conscientious Objection in Healthcare and the Duty to Refer. Journal of Medical Ethics 43 (2017): 207–12.
Curlin, Farr, and Tollefsen, Christopher. The Way of Medicine: Ethics and the Healing Profession. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2021.
D’Arcy, Eric. Conscience. Journal of Medical Ethics 3 (1977): 98–99.
Daniels, Norman. Just Health: Meeting Health Needs Fairly. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Davis, Nancy. The Priority of Avoiding Harm. In Killing and Letting Die, edited by Steinbock, Bonnie, 172–214. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980.
Dickens, Bernard M., and Cook, Rebecca J.. Conscientious Commitment to Women’s Health. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 113 (2011): 163–66.
Durland, Spencer L. The Case against Institutional Conscience. Notre Dame Law Review 86 (2011): 1655–86.
Feinberg, Joel. The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law: Harm to Others. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
Fernandez Lynch, Holly. Conflicts of Conscience in Health Care: An Institutional Compromise. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008.
Fernandez Lynch, Holly, and Stahl, Ronit Y.. Opinion, Protecting Conscientious Providers of Health Care. New York Times, January 26, 2018.
Forrow, Lachlan, Arnold, Robert M., and Parker, Lisa S.. Preventive Ethics: Expanding the Horizons of Clinical Ethics. Journal of Clinical Ethics 4 (1993): 287–94.
Fox, Dov. Medical Disobedience. Harvard Law Review 136 (2023): 1030–111.
Freud, Sigmund. Civilization and Its Discontents. Translated by James Strachey. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1962.
Fritz, Kyle. Unjustified Asymmetry: Positive Claims of Conscience and Heartbeat Bills. American Journal of Bioethics 21 (2021): 46–59.
Fuss, Peter. Conscience. Ethics 74 (1964): 111–20.
Giubilini, Alberto. The Paradox of Conscientious Objection and the Anemic Concept of “Conscience”: Downplaying the Role of Moral Integrity in Health Care. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 24 (2014): 159–85.
Giubilini, Alberto Objection to Conscience: An Argument against Conscience Exemptions in Healthcare. Bioethics 31 (2017): 400–08.
Giubilini, Alberto Conscientious Objection in Healthcare: Neither a Negative nor a Positive Right. Journal of Clinical Ethics 31 (2020): 146–53.
Glasber, A. L., Eriksson, S., and Norberg, A.. Burnout and “Stress of Conscience” among Healthcare Personnel. Journal of Advanced Nursing 57 (2007): 392–403.
Gomez, , Javiera Perez. Mcleod’s Conscience in Reproductive Health Care: Fiduciary Duties beyond Reproductive Care, the Role of the Pharmacist, and the Harms and Wrongs of Conscientious Refusals. International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics 15 (2022): 137–43.
Halfon, Mark S. Integrity: A Philosophical Inquiry. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1989.
Harris, Lisa H. Recognizing Conscience in Abortion Provision. New England Journal of Medicine 367 (2012): 981–83.
Hepler, Charles D. Balancing Pharmacists’ Conscientious Objections with Their Duty to Serve. Journal of the American Pharmacists Association 45 (2005): 434–36.
Hill, Thomas E. Jr. Four Conceptions of Conscience. In Integrity and Conscience (Nomos Xl), edited by Shapiro, Ian and Adams, Robert, 13–52. New York: New York University Press, 1998.
Hughes, Jonathan A. Conscientious Objection in Healthcare: Why Tribunals Might Be the Answer. Journal of Medical Ethics 43 (2017): 213–17.
Joffe, Carole E. Doctors of Conscience: The Struggle to Provide Abortion Before and After Roe v. Wade. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1995.
Kant, Immanuel. The Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by Mary Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Kant, Immanuel Lectures on Ethics. Translated by Peter Heath. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Kantymir, Lori, and McLeod, Carolyn. Justification for Conscience Exemptions in Health Care. Bioethics 28 (2014): 16–23.
Kim, Eric J., and Ferguson, Kyle. Does Medicine Need to Accommodate Positive Conscientious Objections to Morally Self-Correct? American Journal of Bioethics 21 (2021): 74–76.
Langston, Douglas C. Conscience and Other Virtues. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvia State University Press, 2001.
Lawrence, Ryan E., and Curlin, Farr A.. Clash of Definitions: Controversies about Conscience in Medicine. American Journal of Bioethics 7 (2007): 10–14.
Little, Margaret, and Drapkin Lyerly, Anne. The Limits of Conscientious Refusal: A Duty to Ensure Access. American Medical Association Journal of Ethics 15 (2013): 257–62.
Magelssen, M. When Should Conscientious Objection Be Accepted? Journal of Medical Ethics 38 (2012): 18–21.
Malm, H. M. Between the Horns of the Negative–Positive Duty Debate. Philosophical Studies 61 (1991): 187–210.
Marsh, Jason. Conscientious Refusals and Reason-Giving. Bioethics 28 (2014): 313–19.
McConnell, Doug, and Card, Robert F.. Public Reason in Justifications of Conscientious Objection in Health Care. Bioethics 33 (2019): 625–32.
McFall, Lynne. Integrity. Ethics 98 (1987): 5–20.
McLeod, Carolyn. Self-Trust and Reproductive Autonomy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002.
McLeod, Carolyn Conscience in Reproductive Health Care: Prioritizing Patient Interests. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020b.
McLeod, Carolyn Justified Asymmetries: Positive and Negative Claims to Conscience in Reproductive Health Care. American Journal of Bioethics 21 (2021): 60–62.
Meyers, Christopher, and Woods, Robert D. An Obligation to Provide Abortion Services: What Happens When Physicians Refuse? Journal of Medical Ethics 22 (1996): 115–20.
Meyers, Christopher, and Woods, Robert D Conscientious Objection? Yes, but Make Sure It Is Genuine. American Journal of Bioethics 7 (2007): 19–20.
Miller, Franklin G., and Brody, Howard. The Internal Morality of Medicine: An Evolutionary Perspective. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26 (2001): 581–99.
Minerva, Francesca. Conscientious Objection in Italy. Journal of Medical Ethics 41 (2015): 170–73.
Narveson, Jan. Positive/Negative: Why Bother? Tulane Studies in Philosophy XXXIII (1985): 51–65.
Nussbaum, Martha C. Liberty of Conscience: In Defense of America’s Tradition of Religious Equality. New York: Basic Books, 2008.
Paris, Francesca. Bans on Transition Care for Young People Spread across U.S. New York Times, April 17, 2023.
Pellegrino, Edmund D. The Internal Morality of Clinical Medicine: A Paradigm for the Ethics of the Helping and Healing Professions. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26 (2001): 559–79.
Rentmeester, Christy A. Moral Damage to Health Care Professionals and Trainees: Legalism and Other Consequences for Patients and Colleagues. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 33 (2008): 27–43.
Rhodes, Rosamond. The Ethical Standard of Care. American Journal of Bioethics 6 (2006): 76–78.
Rhodes, Rosamond The Truted Doctor: Medical Ethics and Professionalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 2020.
Robinson, Michael. Voluntarily Chosen Roles and Conscientious Objection in Health Care. Journal of Medical Ethics 48 (2022): 718–22.
Saad, Toni C. Conscientious Objection: Unmasking the Impartial Spectator. Journal of Medical Ethics 45 (2019): 676–77.
Savulescu, Julian. Conscientious Objection in Medicine. British Medical Journal 332 (2006): 294–97.
Savulescu, Julian, and Schuklenk, Udo. Doctors Have No Right to Refuse Medical Assistance in Dying, Abortion, or Contraception. Bioethics 31 (2017): 162–70.
Schneider, Jason S., and Levin, Saul. Uneasy Partners: The Lesbian and Gay Health Care Community and the AMA. Journal of the American Medical Association 282 (1999): 1287–88.
Schuklenk, Udo, and Smalling, Ricardo. Why Medical Professionals Have No Moral Claim to Conscientious Objection Accommodation in Liberal Democracies. Journal of Medical Ethics 43 (2017): 234–40.
Sepper, Elizabeth. Taking Conscience Seriously. Virginia Law Review 98 (2012): 1501–75.
Sibley, Muford Q., and Jacob, Philip E.. Conscription of Conscience: The American State and the Conscientious Objector, 1940–1947. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1952.
Singer, Marcus G. Negative and Positive Duties. Philosophical Quarterly 15 (1965): 97–103.
Skorupski, John. Conscience. In The Routledge Companion to Ethics, edited by Skorupski, John, 550–61. London: Routledge, 2010.
Smalling, Ricardo, and Schuklenk, Udo. Against the Accommodation of Subjective Healthcare Provider Beliefs in Medicine: Counteracting Supporters of Conscientious Objector Accommodation Arguments. Journal of Medical Ethics 43 (2017): 253–56.
Stahl, Ronit Y., and Emanuel, Ezekiel J.. Physicians, Not Conscripts – Conscientious Objection in Health Care. New England Journal of Medicine 376 (2017): 1380–85.
Stein, Rob. Pharmacists’ Rights at Front of New Debate: Because of Beliefs, Some Refuse to Fill Birth Control Prescriptions. Washington Post, March 28, 2005, 1.
Sulmasy, Daniel P. What Is Conscience and Why Is Respect for It So Important? Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 29 (2008): 135–49.
Sulmasy, Daniel P. Conscience, Tolerance, and Pluralism in Health Care. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 40 (2019): 507–21.
Veatch, Robert M. The Impossibility of a Morality Internal to Medicine. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26 (2001): 621–42.
Wear, Stephen, LaGaipa, Susan, and Logue, Gerald. Toleration of Moral Diversity and the Conscientious Refusal by Physicians to Withdraw Life-Sustaining Treatments. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 19 (1994): 147–59.
White, Douglas B., and Brody, Baruch. Would Accommodating Some Conscientious Objections by Physicians Promote Quality in Medical Care? Journal of the American Medical Association 305 (2011): 1804–05.
Wicclair, Mark. Negative and Positive Claims of Conscience. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 18 (2009): 14–22.
Wicclair, Mark Conscientious Objection in Health Care: An Ethical Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011a.
Wicclair, Mark Conscientious Refusals by Hospitals and Emergency Contraception. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 20 (2011b): 130–38.
Wicclair, Mark Conscientious Objection. In Encyclopedia of Global Bioethics, edited by ten Have, Henk, 729–40. Cham: Springer, 2014a.
Wicclair, Mark Managing Conscientious Objection in Health Care Institutions. HEC Forum 26 (2014b): 267–83.
Wicclair, Mark Commentary: Special Issue on Conscientious Objection. HEC Forum 33 (2021): 307–24.
Wildes, Kevin Wm. Institutional Identity, Integrity, and Conscience. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 7 (1997): 413–19.
Wilkinson, Dominic J. C. Positive or Negative? Consistency and Inconsistency in Claims of Conscience. Journal of Clinical Ethics 31 (2020): 143–45.
Williams, Bernard. Integrity. In Utilitarianism: For and Against, edited by Smart, J. J. C and Williams, Bernard, 108–17. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
Wood, Allen W. Kantian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
