Abraham, L. (2003). Media stereotypes of African Americans. In P. Lester and S. Ross (eds.), Images that injure: Pictorial stereotypes in the media (87–92). Westport, CN: Praeger.
Abuhamdia, Z. (1987). Neurobiological foundations for foreign language. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 203–11.
Abuseileek, A. (2006). An evaluation of a computer-assisted pronunciation training program for EFL learners. Grazer Linguistische Studien, 66, 1–24.
Abutalebi, J. (2008). Neural aspects of second language representation and language control. Acta Psychologica, 128, 466–78.
ACTFL (1985). ACTFL proficiency guidelines. American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Hastings-on-Hudson, NY: ACTFL Materials Center.
Acton, W. (1984). Changing fossilized pronunciation. TESOL Quarterly, 18, 71–85.
Adamson, H. and Regan, V. (1991). The acquisition of community speech norms by Asian immigrants learning English as a second language: A preliminary study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13, 1–22.
Akita, M. (2006). Global foreign accent and classroom input in L2 perception and production. Proceedings of the Annual Boston Conference on Language Development, 30, 1–14.
Albrechtsen, D., Henriksen, B., and Faerch, C. (1980). Native speaker reactions to learners’ spoken interlanguage. Language Learning, 30, 365–96.
Alford, R. and Strother, J. (1990). Attitudes of native and nonnative speakers toward selected regional accents of US English. TESOL Quarterly, 24, 479–95.
Altenberg, E. and Vago, R. (1987). Theoretical implications of an error analysis of second language phonology production. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (148–64). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Anderson, B. (1983). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso.
Anderson, J. (1987). The markedness differential hypothesis and syllable structure difficulty. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (279–91). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Anderson-Hsieh, J., Johnson, R., and Koehler, K. (1992). The relationship between native speaker judgments of nonnative pronunciation and deviance in segmentals, prosody, and syllable structure. Language Learning, 42, 529–55.
Anderson-Hsieh, J. and Koehler, K. (1988). The effect of foreign accent and speaking rate on native speaker comprehension. Language Learning, 38, 561–613.
Aoyama, K., Guion, S., Flege, J., Yamada, T., and Akahane-Yamada, R. (2008). The first years in an L2-speaking environment: A comparison of Japanese children and adults learning American English. IRAL, 46, 61–90.
Archibald, J. (1998). Second language phonology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Asher, J. and Garcia, R. (1969). The optimal age to learn a foreign language. Modern Language Journal, 53, 334–41.
Atkinson, D. (2010). Sociocognition: What it can mean for second language acquisition. In R. Batstone (ed.), Sociocognitive perspectives on language use and language learning (24–53). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Aufderhaar, C. (2004). Learner views of using authentic audio to aid pronunciation: “You can just grab some feelings.”TESOL Quarterly, 38, 735–46.
Bailey, R. (2004). American English: Its origins and history. In E. Finegan and J. Rickford (eds.), Language in the USA (3–17). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bakanic, V. (2009). Prejudice. Attitudes about race, class, and gender. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Baker, C. (1992). Attitudes and language. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Baker, W. and Trofimovich, P. (2005). Interaction of native- and second-language vowel system(s) in early and late bilinguals. Language and Speech, 48, 1–27.
Baker, W., Trofimovich, P., Flege, J., Mack, M., and Halter, R. (2008). Child–adult differences in second language phonological learning: The role of cross-language similarity. Language and Speech, 51, 317–42.
Baron, D. (1982). Grammar and good taste. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Bassetti, B. (2009). Orthographic input and second language phonology. In M. Young-Scholten and T. Piske (eds.), Input matters in SLA (191–206). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Battistella, E. (2005). Bad language: Are some words better than others?Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Baugh, J. (2003). Linguistic profiling. In S. Makoni, G. Smitherman, A. Ball, and A. Spears (eds.), Black linguistics: Language, society, and politics in Africa and the Americas (155–68). London: Routledge.
Beebe, L. (1984.) Myths about interlanguage phonology. In S. Eliasson (ed.), Theoretical issues in contrastive phonology (51–61). Heidelberg: Julius Groos.
Beebe, L. and Giles, H. (1984). Speech-accommodation theories: A discussion in terms of second-language acquisition. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 46, 5–32.
Bender, J. (1943). NBC handbook of pronunciation. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.
Benson, B. (1988). Universal preference for the open syllable as an independent process in interlanguage phonology. Language Learning, 38, 221–42.
Bent, T. and Bradlow, A. (2003). The interlanguage speech intelligibility benefit. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 114, 1600–10.
Bent, T., Bradlow, A., and Smith, B. (2007). Segmental errors in different word positions and their effects on intelligibility of non-native speech. In O. Bohn and M. Munro (eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning (331–47). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Bent, T., Bradlow, A., and Wright, B. (2006). The influence of linguistic experience on the cognitive processing of pitch in speech and nonspeech sounds. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32, 97–103.
Berkowitz, D. (1989). The effect of cultural empathy on second-language phonological production. In M. Eisenstein (ed.), The dynamic interlanguage (101–14). New York: Plenum Press.
Best, C. and Tyler, M. (2007). Non-native and second language speech perception. Commonalities and complementarities. In O.-S. Bohn and M. Munro (eds.), Language experience and second language speech learning: In honor of James E. Flege (13–34). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Best, C., McRoberts, G., and Sithole, N. (1987). Examination of perceptual reorganization for nonnative speech contrasts: Zulu click discrimination by English-speaking adults and infants. Haskins Laboratories Status Report on Speech Research 91, 1–29.
Bever, T. (1981). Normal acquisition processes explain the critical period for language learning. In K. Diller (ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (176–98). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Bever, T. and Chiarello, R. (1974). Cerebral dominance in musicians and non-musicians. Science, 185, 537–9.
Bialystok, E. and Hakuta, K. (1994). In other words: The science and psychology of second language acquisition. New York: Basic Books.
Bialystok, E., Majumder, S., and Martin, M. (2003). Developing phonological awareness: Is there a bilingual advantage?Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 27–44.
Bielska, J. (2008). Gender differences in strategy use and classroom task preferences of Polish EFL learners. Linguistic Insights: Studies in Language and Communication, 78, 113–27.
Birdsong, D. (2005). Interpreting age effects in second language acquisition. In J. Kroll and A. De Groot (eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (109–27). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and L2 acquisition and processing. Language Learning, 56, 9–49.
Birdsong, D. and Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational effects in second language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 235–49.
Bley-Vroman, R. (1989). What is the logical problem of foreign language learning? In S. Gass and J. Schachter (eds.), Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition (41–68). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Block, D. (2007). Second language identities. New York: Continuum.
Bohn, O. (2005). A fond farewell to the critical period hypothesis for non-primary language acquisition. In A. Saleemi, O. Bohn, and A. Gjedde (eds.), In search of a language for the mind-brain (285–310). Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press.
Bohn, O. and Bundgaard-Nielsen, R. L. (2009). Second language speech learning with diverse inputs. In M. Young-Scholten and T. Piske (eds.), Input matters in SLA (207–18). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Bongaerts, T. (2005). Introduction: Ultimate attainment and the critical period hypothesis for second language acquisition. IRAL, 43, 259–67.
Bongaerts, T., Planken, B., and Schils, E. (1995). Can late starters attain a native accent in a foreign language? A test of the critical period hypothesis. In D. Singleton and Z. Lengyel (eds.), The age factor in second language acquisition (30–50). Clevedon: UK: Multilingual Matters.
Bongaerts, T., Summeren, C., Planken, B., and Schils, E. (1997). Age and ultimate attainment in the production of foreign language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 447–65.
Bourhis, R., Giles, H., and Lambert, W. (1975). Social consequences of accommodating one’s style of speech: A cross-national investigation. Linguistics, 166, 55–71.
Bowden, H., Sanz, C., and Stafford, C. (2005). Individual differences: Age, sex, working memory, and prior knowledge. In C. Sanz (ed.), Mind and context in adult second language acquisition: Methods, theory and practice (105–40). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Bradlow, A. and Bent, T. (2008). Perceptual adaptation to non-native speech. Cognition, 106, 707–29.
Bratu, R. (2002). The role of computer software in the phonological development of students enrolled in university courses of French as a second language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Alberta.
Bresnahan, M., Ohashi, R., Nebashi, R., Liu, W., and Shearman, S. (2002). Attitudinal and affective responses toward accented English. Language and Communication, 22, 171–85.
Broselow, E. (1988). An investigation of transfer in second language phonology. In D. Nehls (ed.), Interlanguage studies (77–93). Heidelberg: Groos.
Broselow, E., Chen, S., and Wang, C. (1998). The emergence of the unmarked in second language phonology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 261–80.
Broselow, E., Hurtig, R., and Ringen, C. (1987). The perception of second language prosody. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (350–61). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Brown, B., Giles, H., and Thakerar, J. (1985). Speaker evaluations as a function of speech rate, accent and context. Language and Communication, 5, 207–20.
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles and practice of language learning and teaching, 5th edn. New York: Pearson Longman.
Brown, P. and Fraser, C. (1979). Speech as a marker of situation. In K. Scherer and H. Giles (eds.), Social markers in speech (33–62). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, P. and Levinson, S. (1979). Social structure, groups and interaction. In K. Scherer and H. Giles (eds.), Social markers in speech (291–342). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bucholtz, M. and Hall, K. (2005). Identity and interaction: A sociocultural linguistic approach. Discourse Studies, 7, 585–614.
Burman, D., Bitan, T., and Booth, J. (2008). Sex differences in neural processing of language among children. Neuropsychologia, 46, 1349–62.
Burnham, D. and Mattock, J. (2007). The perception of tones and phones. In O. Bohn and M. Munro (eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning (259–80). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Burnham, D., Tyler, M., and Horlyck, S. (2002). Periods of speech perception development and their vestiges in adulthood. In P. Burmeister, T. Piske, and A. Rohde (eds.), An integrated view of language development: Papers in honor of Henning Wode (281–300). Trier, Germany: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag.
Burns, T., Yoshida, K., Hill, K., and Werker, J. (2007). The development of phonetic representation in bilingual and monolingual infants. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28, 455–74.
Callan, D., Jones, J., Callan, A., and Akahane-Yamada, R. (2004). Phonetic perceptual identification by native- and second-language speakers differentially activates brain regions involved with acoustic phonetic processing and those involved with articulatory auditory/orosensory internal models. Neuroimage, 22, 1182–94.
Callan, V., Gallois, C., and Forbes, P. (1983). Evaluative reactions to accented English: Ethnicity, sex role, and content. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 14, 407–26.
Cameron, D. (2000). Styling the worker: Gender and the commodification of language in the globalized service economy. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4, 323–47.
Cameron, D. (2001). Language: Designer voices. Critical Quarterly, 43, 81–5.
Campbell-Kibler, K. (2011). The sociolinguistic variant as a carrier of social meaning. Language Variation and Change, 22, 423–41.
Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1–47.
Canto, M. (
2006, June 12). Striking an ethnicity/assimilation balance.
Television Week. Retrieved from
http://web.ebscohost.com Cargile, A. (2000). Evaluations of employment suitability: Does accent always matter?Journal of Employment Counseling, 37, 165–77.
Cargile, A. and Giles, H. (1998). Language attitudes toward varieties of English: An American–Japanese context. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 26, 338–56.
Carlisle, R. (2001). Syllable structure universals and second language acquisition. International Journal of English Studies, 1, 1–19.
Carlson, H. and McHenry, M. (2006). Effect of accent and dialect on employability. Journal of Employment Counseling, 43, 70–83.
Carranza, M. and Ryan, E. (1975). Evaluative reactions of bilingual Anglo and Mexican-American adolescents toward speakers of English and Spanish. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 6, 83–104.
Carroll, J. and Sapon, S. (1959.) Modern Language Aptitude Test. New York: Psychological Corporation.
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D., and Goodwin, J. (1996). Teaching pronunciation: A reference for teachers of English to speakers of other languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cenoz, J. and Garcia Lecumberri, M. (1999). The acquisition of English pronunciation: Learners’ views. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 9, 3–17.
Cesar-Lee, B. (2000). Quantification of accented pronunciation by American-English speakers in French as a foreign language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
Chambers, J. K. (2009). Sociolinguistic theory, rev. edn. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Chand, V. (2009). [V]at is going on? Local and global ideologies about Indian English. Language in Society, 38, 393–419.
Chiarello, C. (2003). Parallel systems for processing language: Hemispheric complementarity in the normal brain. In M. Banich and M. Mack (eds.), Mind, brain and language: Multidisciplinary perspectives (229–47). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Chiarello, C. and Beeman, M. (1998). Right hemisphere linguistic decoding – More than meets the eye and ear? In M. Beeman and C. Chiarello (eds.), Right hemisphere comprehension: Perspectives from cognitive neuroscience (133–7). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Chipman, K. and Kimura, D. (1999). An investigation of sex differences on incidental memory for verbal and pictorial material. Learning and Individual Differences, 10, 259–72.
Chuang, H. (2010). Undergraduates’ perceptions and attitudes toward the foreign accentedness of international teaching assistants in the USA. Unpublished master’s thesis, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL.
Chun, D. (1988). The neglected role of intonation in communicative competence and proficiency. Modern Language Journal, 72, 295–303.
Chun, D. (2007). Technological advances in phonology. In M. Pennington (ed.), Phonology in context (274–99). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Clément, R. and Kruidenier, B. (1983). Orientations in second language acquisition: The effects of ethnicity, milieu, and target language on their emergence. Language Learning, 33, 273–91.
Clements, A., Rimrodt, S., Blankner, J., Mostofsky, S., Pekar, J., Denckla, M., and Cutting, L. (2006). Sex differences in cerebral laterality of language and visuospatial processing. Brain and Language, 98, 150–8.
Colantoni, L. and Steele, J. (2008). Integrating articulatory constraints into models of second language phonological acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 29, 489–534.
Conrey, B., Potts, G., and Niedzielski, N. (2005). Effects of dialect on merger perception: ERP and behavioral correlates. Brain and Language, 95, 435–49.
Cook, V. (2002). Background to the L2 user. In V. Cook (ed.), Portraits of the L2 user (1–28). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Coulthard, M. (2004). Author identification, idiolect and linguistic uniqueness. Applied Linguistics, 25, 431–47.
Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UKCambridge University Press.
Couper, G. (2006). The short and long-term effects of pronunciation instruction. Prospect, 21, 46–66.
Couper-Kuhlen, E. (2007). Situated phonologies: Patterns of phonology in discourse contexts. In M. Pennington (ed.), Phonology in context (186–218). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Coupland, N. (1984.) Accommodation at work: Some phonological data and their implications. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 46, 49–70.
Coupland, N. and Bishop, H. (2007). Ideologised values for British accents. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 11, 74–93.
Cowie, C. (2007). The accents of outsourcing: The meanings of “neutral” in the Indian call center industry. World Englishes, 26, 316–30.
Crawford, J. (1992). What’s behind Official English? In J. Crawford (ed.), Language loyalties: A source book on the Official English controversy (171–7). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Crowley, T. (2003). Standard English and the politics of language, 2nd edn. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Crystal, D. (1987). Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language, 2nd edn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cukor-Avila, P. (1988). The effect of accent on speech and personality judgments. PALM, 3, 1–20.
Cunningham, E. (1998). The rise of identity politics I: The myth of the protected class in Title VII disparate treatment cases. Connecticut Law Review, 30, 441, 32–75.
Dabrowska, E. (2004). Language, mind and brain. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Dai, Y. (2006). The effects of language aptitude on second language acquisition. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 38, 451–9.
Dailey, R., Giles, H., and Jansma, L. (2005). Language attitudes in an Anglo-Hispanic context: The role of the linguistic landscape. Language and Communication, 25, 27–38.
Dalton-Puffer, C., Kaltenboeck, G., and Smit, U. (1997). Learner attitudes and L2 pronunciation in Austria. World Englishes, 16, 115–28.
Dalton, C. and Seidlhofer, B. (1994). Pronunciation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Daly, N. and Warren, P. (2001). Pitching it differently in New Zealand English: Speaker sex and intonation patterns. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 5, 85–96.
Davies, A. (2000). What second language learners can tell us about the native speaker. In R. Cooper, E. Shoshamy, and J. Walters (eds.), New perspectives and issues in educational language policy (91–112). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Davies, B. (2004). The gender gap in modern languages: A comparison of attitude and performance in year 7 and year 10. Language Learning Journal, 29, 53–8.
Dávila, A., Bohara, A., and Saenz, R. (1993). Accent penalties and the earnings of Mexican Americans. Social Science Quarterly, 74, 902–16.
deBot, K. (1980). The role of feedback and feedforward in the teaching of pronunciation: An overview. System, 8, 35–45.
deBot, K. (1983). Visual feedback of intonation: Effectiveness and induced practice behavior. Language and Speech, 26, 331–51.
deBot, K. and Mailfert, K. (1982). The teaching of intonation: fundamental research and classroom applications. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 71–7.
DeKeyser, R. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499–533.
DeKlerk, V. and Bosch, B. (1995). Linguistic stereotypes: Nice accent – nice person?International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 116, 17–37.
Del Valle, S. (2003). Language rights and the law in the United States. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
DeLeeuw, E., Schmid, M., and Mennen, I. (2010). The effects of contact on native language pronunciation in an L2 migrant setting. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13, 33–40.
Delmonte, R. (2000). SLIM prosodic automatic feedback tools for self-learning instruction. Speech Communication, 30, 145–66.
Derwing, T. (2003). What do ESL students say about their accents?Canadian Modern Language Review, 59, 547–66.
Derwing, T. (2008). Curriculum issues in teaching pronunciation to second language learners. In J. Hansen Edwards and M. Zampini (eds.), Phonology and second language acquisition (347–60). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Derwing, T. and Munro, M. (1997). Accent, intelligibility, and comprehensibility. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 1–16.
Derwing, T. and Munro, M. (2005). Second language accent and pronunciation teaching: A research-based approach. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 379–97.
Derwing, T. and Rossiter, M. (2002). ESL learners’ perceptions of their pronunciation needs and strategies. System, 30, 155–66.
Derwing, T. and Rossiter, M. (2003). The effects of pronunciation instruction on the accuracy, fluency and complexity of L2 accented speech. Applied Language Learning, 13, 1–17.
Derwing, T., Munro, M., and Carbonaro, M. (2000). Does popular speech recognition software work with ESL speech?TESOL Quarterly, 34, 592–603.
Derwing, T., Munro, M., and Thomson, R. (2007). A longitudinal study of ESL learners’ fluency and comprehensibility development. Applied Linguistics, 29, 359–80.
Derwing, T., Munro, M., and Wiebe, G. (1998). Evidence in favor of a broad framework for pronunciation instruction. Language Learning, 48, 393–410.
Derwing, T., Rossiter, M., Munro, M., and Thomson, R. (2004). Second language fluency: Judgments on different tasks. Language Learning, 54, 655–79.
Devine, P. and Sharp, L. (2009). Automaticity and control in stereotyping and prejudice. In T. Nelson (ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (61–110). New York: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
Dewey, M. and Jenkins, J. (2010). English as a lingua franca in the global context: Interconnectedness, variation and change. In M. Saxena and T. Omoniyi (eds.), Contending with globalization in world Englishes (72–92). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Diaz-Campos, M. (2004). Context of learning in the acquisition of Spanish second language phonology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 249–73.
Dick, F., Dronkers, N., Pizzamiglio, L., Saygin, A., Small, S., and Wilson, S. (2005). Language and the brain. In M. Tomasello and D. Slobin (eds.), Beyond nature–nurture: Essays in honor of Elizabeth Bates (237–60). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dickerson, L. (1975). The learner’s interlanguage as a system of variable rules. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 401–7.
Dixon, J. and Mahoney, B. (2004). The effect of accent evaluation and evidence on a suspect’s perceived guilt and criminality. Journal of Social Psychology, 144, 63–73.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003a). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research and applications. Language Learning, 53, 3–32.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003b). Questionnaires in second language research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). Psychology and the language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2006). Individual differences in SLA. AILA Review, 19, 42–68.
Doughty, C. (2001). Cognitive underpinnings of focus on form. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (206–57). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Doughty, C. and Varela, E. (1998). Communicative focus on form. In C. Doughty and J. Williams (eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (114–38). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Dupoux, E. (2003, October). Plasticity and non-plasticity in speech processing: Late learners and early forgetting. Paper presented to Linguistics Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
Eades, D. (2010). Sociolinguistics and the legal process. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Eckman, F. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning, 27, 315–30.
Eisenstein, M. (1983). Native reactions to non-native speech: A review of empirical research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 5, 160–76.
Elliott, A. (1995). Field independence/dependence, hemispheric specialization, and attitude in relation to pronunciation accuracy in Spanish as a foreign language. Modern Language Journal, 79, 356–71.
Elliott, A. (1997). On the teaching and acquisition of pronunciation within a communicative approach. Hispania, 80, 95–108.
Elliott, D. (2003). Moral responsibilities and the power of pictures. In P. Lester and S. Ross (eds.), Images that injure: Pictorial stereotypes in the media (7–14). Westport, CN: Praeger.
Ensz, K. (1982). French attitudes toward typical speech errors of American speakers of French. Modern Language Journal, 66, 133–9.
Enteman, W. (2003). Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination. In P. Lester and S. Ross (eds.), Images that injure: Pictorial stereotypes in the media (15–22). Westport, CN: Praeger.
Erdener, V. and Burnham, D. (2005). The role of audiovisual speech and orthographic information on nonnative speech production. Language Learning, 55, 191–228.
Escudero, P. (2007). Second language phonology: The role of perception. In M. Pennington (ed.), Phonology in context (109–34). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Escudero, P. and Boersma, P. (2004). Bridging the gap between L2 speech perception research and phonological theory. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 551–85.
Faerch, C. and Kasper, G. (1987). Perspectives on language transfer. Applied Linguistics, 8, 111–36.
Fathman, A. (1975). The relationship between age and second language productive ability. Language Learning, 25, 245–53.
Ferguson, C. (1971). Absence of copula and the notion of simplicity: A study of normal speech, baby talk, foreigner talk, and pidgins. In D. Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ferrier, L., Reid, L., and Chenausky, K. (1999). Computer-assisted accent modification: A report on practice effects. Topics in Language Disorders, 19, 35–48.
Field, J. (2005). Intelligibility and the listener: The role of lexical stress. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 399–423.
Finegan, E. (1980). Attitudes toward English usage: The history of a war of words. New York: Teachers College Press.
Finegan, E. (2004). American English and its distinctiveness. In E. Finegan and J. Rickford (eds.), Language in the USA (18–38). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Fiske, S., Harris, L., Lee, T., and Russell, A. (2009). The future of research on prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination. In T. Nelson (ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (525–34). New York: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
Flege, J. (1995). Second language speech learning: Theory, findings and problems. In W. Strange (ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research (229–73). Timonium, MD: York Press.
Flege, J. (2009). Give input a chance! In T. Piske and M. Young-Scholten (eds.), Input matters in SLA (175–90). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Flege, J., Birdsong, D., Bialystok, E., Mack, M., Sung, H., and Tsukada, K. (2006). Degree of foreign accent in English sentences produced by Korean children and adults. Journal of Phonetics, 34, 153–75.
Flege, J. and Fletcher, K. (1992). Talker and listener effects on degree of perceived foreign accent. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 91, 370–89.
Flege, J., Frieda, E., and Nozawa, T. (1997). Amount of native language (L1) use affects the pronunciation of an L2. Journal of Phonetics, 25, 169–86.
Flege, J. and Hillenbrand, J. (1987). Limits on phonetic accuracy in foreign language speech production. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (176–203). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Flege, J. and Liu, S. (2001). The effect of experience on adults’ acquisition of a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 527–52.
Flege, J., MacKay, I., and Piske, T. (2002). Assessing bilingual dominance. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 567–98.
Flege, J., Munro, M., and MacKay, I. (1995b). Factors affecting strength of perceived foreign accent in a second language. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97, 3125–34.
Flege, J., Takagi, N., and Mann, V. (1995a). Japanese adults can learn to produce English /r/ and /l/ accurately. Language and Speech, 38, 25–55.
Flege, J., Yeni-Komshian, G., and Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41, 78–104.
Frumkin, L. (2007). Influences of accent and ethnic background on perceptions of eyewitness testimony. Psychology, Crime and Law, 13, 317–31.
Fullana, N. (2006). The development of English (FL) perception and production skills: Starting age and exposure effects. In C. Muñoz (ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning (41–64). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Gallois, C. and Callan, V. (1981). Personality impressions elicited by accented English speech. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 12, 347–59.
Galloway, L. and Scarcella, R. (1982). Cerebral organization in adult second language acquisition: Is the right hemisphere more involved?Brain and Language, 16, 56–60.
Garcia Lecumberri, M. and Gallardo, F. (2003). English FL sounds in school learners of different ages. In M. Garcia Mayo and M. Garcia Lecumberri (eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (115–35). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Gardner, R. (1979). Social psychological aspects of second language acquisition. In H. Giles and R. Sinclair (eds.), Language and social psychology (193–220). Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
Gardner, R. and Lambert, W. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Gardner, R., Masgoret, A. and Tremblay, P. (1999). Home background characteristics and second language learning. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 18, 419–37.
Garrett, P. (1992). Accommodation and hyperaccommodation in foreign language learners: Contrasting responses to French and Spanish English speakers by native and non-native recipients. Language and Communication, 12, 295–315.
Garrett. P. (2010). Attitudes to language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Gass, S. and Varonis, E. (1984). The effect of familiarity on the comprehensibility of non-native speech. Language Learning, 34, 65–89.
Gatbonton, E., Trofimovich, P., and Magid, M. (2005). Learners’ ethnic group affiliation and L2 pronunciation accuracy: A sociolinguistic investigation. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 489–511.
Gilbert, J. (1983). Pronunciation and listening comprehension. Cross Currents, 10, 53–61.
Giles, H. (1979). Ethnicity markers in speech. In K. Scherer and H. Giles (eds.), Social markers in speech (251–90). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Giles, H. and Coupland, N. (1991). Language: Contexts and consequences. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
Giles, H., Coupland, N. and Coupland, J. (1991). Accommodation theory: Communication, context and consequence. In H. Giles, J. Coupland, and N. Coupland (eds.), Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics (1–68). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Gill, M. (1994). Accent and stereotypes: Their effect on perceptions of teachers and lecture comprehension. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 22, 348–61.
Golestani, N., and Zatorre, R. (2009). Individual differences in the acquisition of second language phonology. Brain and Language, 109, 55–67.
Golombek, P. and Jordan, S. (2005). Becoming “black lambs” not “parrots”: A poststructuralist orientation to intelligibility and identity. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 513–33.
Gonzalez, V. and Schallert, D. (1999). An integrative analysis of the cognitive development of bilingual and bicultural children and adults. In V. Gonzalez (ed.), Language and cognitive development in second language learning (19–55). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Gonzalez-Bueno, M. (1997). Voice-onset-time in the perceptions of foreign accent by native listeners of Spanish. IRAL, 35, 251–67.
Gottfried, T. (2008). Music and language learning. Effects of musical training on learning L2 speech contrasts. In O. Bohn and M. Munro (eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning (221–37). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Grabe, E., Rosner, B., Garcia-Albea, J., and Zhou, X. (2003). Perception of English intonation by English, Spanish and Chinese listeners. Language and Speech, 46, 375–401.
Granena, G. (2006). Age, proficiency level and interactional skills: Evidence from breakdowns in production. In C. Muñoz (ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning (183–207). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Grazia Busa, M. (2010). Effects of L1 on L2 pronunciation: Italian prosody in English. Linguistic Insights – Studies in Language and Communication, 96, 207–28.
Gregg, K. (1996). The logical and developmental problems of second language acquisition. In W. Ritchie and T. Bhatia (eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (49–81). New York: Academic Press.
Guion, S. and Pederson, E. (2007). Investigating the role of attention in phonetic learning. In O. Bohn and M. Munro (eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning (57–77). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Guiora, A., Acton, W., Erard, R., and Strickland, F. (1980). The effects of Benzodiazepine (valium) on permeability of language ego boundaries. Language Learning, 30, 351–63.
Guiora, A., Beit-Hallami, B., Brannon, R., Dull, C., and Scovel, T. (1972). The effects of experimentally-induced changes in ego states on pronunciation ability in second language: An exploratory study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 13, 421–8.
Guiora, A. and Schonberger, R. (1990). Native pronunciation of bilinguals. In J. Leather and A. James (eds.), New sounds 90. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam.
Gupta, A. (2005). Inter-accent and inter-cultural intelligibility: A study of listeners in Singapore and Britain. In D. Deterding, A. Brown, and E. Low (eds.), English in Singapore: Phonetic research on a corpus (138–52). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Gynan, S. (1985). Comprehension, irritation and error hierarchies. Hispania, 68, 160–5.
Haddon, B. (1991). Teacher and nonteacher perceptions of second language communication. Language Learning, 41, 1–24.
Hahn, L. (2004). Primary stress and intelligibility: Research to motivate the teaching of suprasegmentals. TESOL Quarterly, 38, 201–23.
Hall, C., Smith, P., and Wicaksono, R. (2011). Mapping applied linguistics: A guide for students and practitioners. London: Routledge.
Hamers, J. and Blanc, M. (2000). Bilinguality and bilingualism, 2nd edn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hammarberg, B. (1993). The course of development in second language phonology acquisition: A natural path or strategic choice? In K. Hyltenstam and A. Viberg (eds.), Progression and regression in language: Sociocultural, neuropsychological and linguistic perspectives (439–62). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Han, Z. (2004). Fossilization: Five central issues. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 14, 212–42.
Hancin-Bhatt, B. (1994). Segment transfer: A consequence of a dynamic system. Second Language Research, 10, 241–69.
Hancin-Bhatt, B. (2008). Second language phonology in optimality theory. In J. Hansen-Edwards and M. Zampini (eds.), Phonology and second language acquisition (117–46). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Hanlon, E. (2005). The role of self-judgment and other-perception in English pronunciation attainment by adult speakers of Spanish. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York: City University of New York.
Hansen, D. (1995). A study of the effect of the acculturation model on second language acquisition. In F. Eckman, D. Highland, P. Lee, J. Mileham, and R. Rutkowski-Weber (eds.), Second language acquisition theory and pedagogy (305–16). Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Hansen, J. (2001). Linguistic constraints on the acquisition of English syllable codas by native speakers of Mandarin Chinese. Applied Linguistics, 22, 338–65.
Hansen, J. (2004). Developmental sequences in the acquisition of English L2 syllable codas. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 85–124.
Hansen Edwards, J. (2008). Social factors and variation in production in L2 phonology. In J. Hansen Edwards and M. Zampini (eds.), Phonology and second language acquisition (251–79). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Hardison, D. (2005). Second-language spoken word identification: Effects of perceptual training, visual cues, and phonetic environment. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26, 579–96.
Hardison, D. (2007). The visual element in phonological perception. In M. Pennington (ed.), Phonology in context (135–58). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Havranek, G. and Cesnik, H. (2001). Factors affecting the success of corrective feedback. EUROSLA Yearbook, 1, 99–122.
Hayes-Harb, R., Smith, B., Bent, T., and Bradlow, A. (2008). The interlanguage speech intelligibility benefit for native speakers of Mandarin: Production and perception of English word-final voicing contrasts. Journal of Phonetics, 36, 664–79.
Hecht, B. and Mulford, R. (1987). The acquisition of a second language phonology: interaction of transfer and developmental factors. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (213–28). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Heinzmann, S. (2009). “Girls are better at language learning than boys”: Do stereotypic beliefs about language learning contribute to girls’ higher motivation to learn English in primary school?Bulletin suisse de linguistique appliquée, 89, 19–36.
Henry, A. and Apelgren, B. (2008). Young learners and multilingualism: A study of learner attitudes before and after the introduction of a second foreign language to the curriculum. System, 36, 607–23.
Herschensohn, J. (2007). Language development and age. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hincks, R. (2003). Speech technologies for pronunciation feedback and evaluation. ReCALL, 15, 3–20.
Hing, L. and Zanna, M. (2010). Individual differences. In J. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, P. Glick, and V. Esses (eds.), The Sage handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (163–78). London: Sage Publications.
Hirata, Y. (2004). Computer assisted pronunciation training for native English speakers learning Japanese pitch and durational contrasts. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 17, 357–76.
Hoffman, E. (1990). Lost in translation: A life in a new language. New York: Penguin.
Hogg, M. and Rigoli, N. (1996). Effects of ethnolinguistic vitality, ethnic identification, and linguistic contacts on minority language use. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15, 76–89.
Holm, S. (2006). The relative contribution of intonation and duration to degree of foreign accent in Norwegian as a second language. Lund University, Centre for Languages and Literature, Dept. of Linguistics and Phonetics, Working Papers, 52, 61–4.
Honey, J. (1997). Sociophonology. In F. Coulmas (ed.), The handbook of sociolinguistics (92–106). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
House, J. (1999). Misunderstanding in intercultural communication: Interactions in English as a lingua franca and the myth of mutual intelligibility. In C. Gnutzmann (ed.), Teaching and learning English as a global language (73–89). Tübingen, Germany: Stauffenburg Verlag.
Hu, G. and Lindemann, S. (2009). Stereotypes of Cantonese English, apparent native/non-native status, and their effect on non-native English speakers’ perception. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 30, 253–69.
Hu, X. and Reiterer, S. (2009). Personality and pronunciation talent in second language acquisition. In G. Dogil and S. Reiterer (eds.), Language talent and brain activity (97–129). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Hummel, K. (2007). Aptitude, phonological memory, and second language proficiency in non-novice adult learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30, 225–49.
Hyltenstam, K. and Abrahamsson, N. (2001). Comments on Stefka H. Marinova-Todd, D. Bradford Marshall, and Catherine E. Snow’s “Three misconceptions about age and L2 learning”. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 151–76.
Hyltenstam, K. and Abrahamsson, N. (2003). Maturational constraints in SLA. In C. Doughty and M. Long (eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (539–88). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Hyltenstam, K., Bylund, E., Abrahamsson, N., and Park, H.-S. (2009). Dominant-language replacement: The case of international adoptees. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12, 121–40.
Hyman, H. (2002). Foreign-accented adult ESL learners: Perceptions of their accent changes and employability qualifications. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, New York.
Hymes, D. (1971). On communicative competence. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Imai, T. (2005). Vowel devoicing in Tokyo Japanese: A variationist approach. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.
Imaizumi, S., Homma, M., Ozawa, Y., Maruishi, M., and Muranaka, H. (2004). Gender differences in emotional prosody processing – an fMRI study. Psychologia, 47, 113–24.
Ioup, G., Boustagi, E., El Tigi, M., and Moselle, M. (1994). Re-examining the critical period hypothesis: A case study of successful adult SLA in a naturalistic environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 73–98.
Isaacs, T. (2008). Towards defining a valid assessment criterion of pronunciation proficiency in non-native English-speaking graduate students. Canadian Modern Language Review, 64, 555–80.
Iverson, G. and Kuhl, P. (1996). Influences of phonetic identification and category goodness on American listeners’ perception of /r/ and /l/. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 99, 1130–40.
James, A. (1987). The acquisition of phonological representation: A modular approach. In A. James and J. Leather (eds.), Sound patterns in second language acquisition (225–49). Dordrecht: Foris.
Janicki, K. (1990). Native speakers’ perceptions of foreigner’s language: Some preliminary findings. Sociolinguistics, 19, 53–67.
Jarvis, S. and Pavlenko, A. (2008). Crosslinguistic influence in language and cognition. New York: Routledge.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Jenkins, J. (2002). A sociolinguistically-based, empirically-researched pronunciation syllabus for English as an International Language. Applied Linguistics, 23, 83–103.
Jenkins, J. (2004). Research in teaching pronunciation and intonation. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 109–25.
Jenkins, J. (2005). Implementing an international approach to English pronunciation: The role of teacher attitudes and identity. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 535–50.
Jia, G. and Aaronson, D. (2003). A longitudinal study of Chinese children and adolescents learning English in the United States. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 131–61.
Jia, G., Strange, W., Wu, Y., Collado, J., and Guan, Q. (2006). Perception and production of English vowels by Mandarin speakers: Age-related differences vary with amount of L2 exposure. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 119, 1118–30.
Jilka, M. (2009). Talent and proficiency in language. In G. Dogil and S. Reiterer (eds.), Language talent and brain activity (1–16). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Johnson, J. and Newport, E. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 39, 215–58.
Jones, E., Gallois, C., Barker, M., and Callan, V. (1994). Evaluations of interactions between students and academic staff: Influence of communication accommodation, ethnic group and status. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 13, 158–91.
Joseph, J. (1987). Eloquence and power: The rise of language standards and standard languages. London: Frances Pinter.
Kachru, B. and Nelson, C. (1996). World Englishes. In S. McKay and N. Hornberger (eds.), Sociolinguistics and language teaching (71–102). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kahane, H. (1992). American English: From a colonial substandard to a prestige language. In B. Kachru (ed.), The other tongue: English across cultures (211–19). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Kalin, R. and Rayko, D. (1978). Discrimination in evaluative judgments of foreign-accented job candidates. Psychological Reports, 43, 1203–9.
Kaltenbacher, E. (1994). Der deutsche Wortakzent im Zweitspracherwerb: Zur Rolle von Ausgangssprache, Zielsprache und Markiertheit. Linguistische Berichte, 150, 91–117.
Kang, O. (2008). Ratings of L2 oral performance in English: Relative impact of rater characteristics and acoustic measures of accentedness. Spaan Fellow Working Papers in Second or Foreign Language Assessment, 6, 181–205.
Kang, O. (2010). Relative salience of suprasegmental features on judgments of L2 comprehensibility and accentedness. System, 38, 301–15.
Kang, O. and Rubin, D. (2009). Reverse linguistic stereotyping: Measuring the effect of listener expectations on speech evaluation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 28, 441–56.
Kaplan, A. (1994). On language memoir. In A. Bammer (ed.), Displacements: Cultural identities in question (59–70). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Kellerman, E. (1983). Now you see it, now you don’t. In S. Gass and L. Selinker (eds.), Language transfer in language learning (112–29). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Kelman, M. (2007). An investigation of preschool children’s primary literacy skills. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS.
Kennedy, S. and Trofimovich, P. (2008). Intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness of L2 speech: The role of listener experience and semantic context. Canadian Modern Language Review, 64, 459–89.
Kerswill, P. and Shockey, L. (2007). The description and acquisition of variable phonological patterns: Phonology and sociolinguistics. In M. Pennington (ed.), Phonology in context (51–75). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
King, K. (1998). Mandating English proficiency for college instructors: States’ responses to “the TA problem.”Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 31, 203–56.
Kinzler, K. (2008). The native language of social cognition: Developmental origins of social preferences based on language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Kissau, S. (2007). Is what’s good for the goose good for the gander? The case of male and female encouragement to study French. Foreign Language Annals, 40, 419–32.
Knightly, L., Jun, S., Oh, J., and Au, T. (2003). Production benefits of childhood overhearing. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 114, 465–74.
Knoerr, H. and Weinberg, A. (2005). Teaching pronunciation in French as a second language: From cassette to CD-Rom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 61, 383–405.
Kormos, J. (2006). Speech production and second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. New York: Pergamon Press.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. New York: Pergamon.
Krashen, S., Long, M., and Scarcella, R. (1982). Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. In S. Krashen, R. Scarcella and M. Long (eds.), Child–adult differences in second language acquisition (161–72). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Kuhl, P. (2007). Cracking the speech code: How infants learn language. Acoustical Science and Technology, 28, 71–83.
Kuhl, P., Conboy, B., Coffey-Corina, S., Padden, D., Rivera-Gaxiola, M., and Nelson, T. (2008). Phonetic learning as a pathway to language: New data and Native Language Magent Theory Expanded (NLM-e). Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 363, 979–1000.
Kuhl, P. and Iverson, P. (1995). Linguistic experience and the “perceptual magnet effect.” In W. Strange (ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research (121–54). Timonium, MD: York Press.
Labov, W. (
2006). American accent undergoing Great Vowel Shift. Interview by Robert Siegal, February, 16. Retrieved from
http://www.npr.org Labrie, N. and Clément, R. (1986). Ethnolinguistic vitality, self-confidence and second language proficiency: An investigation. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 7, 269–82.
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Lakoff, R. (2001). The language war. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Lambacher, S., Martens, W., Kakehi, K., Marasinghe, C., and Molholt, G. (2005). The effects of identification training on the identification and production of American English vowels by native speakers of Japanese. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26, 227–47.
Lambert, W. (1967). The social psychology of bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues, 23, 91–109.
Lambert, W. (1977). The effects of bilingualism on the individual: Cognitive and sociocultural consequences. In P. Hornby (ed.), Bilingualism: Psychological, social and educational implications (15–27). New York: Academic Press.
Lambert, W., Giles, H., and Albert, G. (1976). Language attitudes in a rural community in Northern Maine. Monda Lingvo-Problemo, 5, 129–44.
Lambert, W., Hodgson, R., Gardner, R., and Fillenbaum, S. (1960). Evaluational reactions to spoken language. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60, 44–51.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 18, 141–65.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2009). Adjusting expectations: The study of complexity, accuracy and fluency in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 30, 579–89.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2011). A complexity theory approach to second language development/acquisition. In D. Atkinson (ed.), Alternative approaches to second language acquisition (48–72). New York: Routledge.
Lasagabaster, D. and Sierra, D. (2005). The nativeness factor: An analysis of students’ preferences. ITL, Review of Applied Linguistics, 147–8, 21–43.
Leather, J. (1983). Second-language pronunciation learning and teaching. Language Teaching Abstracts, 16, 198–219.
Leather, J. (1987). F0 pattern inference in the perceptual acquisition of second language tone. In A. James and J. Leather (eds.), Sound patterns in second language acquisition (59–80). Dordrecht: Foris.
Leather, J. and James, A. (1996). Second language speech. In W. Ritchie and T. Bhatia (eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (269–316). New York: Academic Press.
Lee, B., Guion, S., and Harada, T. (2006). Acoustic analysis of the production of unstressed English vowels by early and late Korean and Japanese bilinguals. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 487–513.
Lefkowitz, N. and Hedgcock, J. (2002). Sound barriers: Influences of social prestige, peer pressure and teacher (dis)approval on FL oral performance. Language Teaching Research, 6, 223–44.
Lefkowitz, N. and Hedgcock, J. (2006). Sound effects: Social pressure and identity negotiation in the Spanish language classroom. Applied Language Learning, 16, 13–38.
Lehtonen, J. and Sajavaara, K. (1984). Phonology and speech processing in cross-language communication. In S. Eliasson (ed.), Theoretical issues in contrastive phonology (85–99). Heidelberg: Julius Groos.
Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley.
LePage, R. and Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985). Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lev-Ari, S. and Keysar, B. (2010). Why don’t we believe non-native speakers? The influence of accent on credibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 1093–6.
Levis, J. (1999). Intonation in theory and practice revisited. TESOL Quarterly, 33, 37–63.
Levis, J. (2005). Changing contexts and shifting paradigms in pronunciation teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 369–77.
Levis, J. (2006). Pronunciation and the assessment of spoken language. In R. Hughes (ed.), Spoken English, TESOL and applied linguistics (245–70). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Levis, J. (2007). Computer technology in teaching and researching pronunciation. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 27, 184–202.
Levis, J. and Pickering, L. (2004). Teaching intonation in discourse using speech visualization technology. System, 32, 505–24.
Lewis, J. (2003). Social influences on female speakers’ pitch. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, CA.
Lim, T. and Kim, S. (2007). Many faces of media effects. In R. Preiss, B. Gayle, N. Burrell, M. Allen, and J. Bryant (eds.), Mass media effects research (315–25). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lin, Y. (2003). Interphonology variability: Sociolinguistic factors affecting L2 simplification strategies. Applied Linguistics, 24, 439–64.
Lindell, A. and Lum, J. (2008). Priming vs. rhyming: Orthographic and phonological representations in the left and right hemispheres. Brain and Language, 68, 193–203.
Lindemann, S. (2002). Listening with an attitude: A model of native-speaker comprehension of non-native speakers in the United States. Language in Society, 31, 419–41.
Lindemann, S. (2003). Koreans, Chinese or Indians? Attitudes and ideologies about non-native English speakers in the United States. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7, 348–64.
Lindemann, S. (2005). Who speaks “broken English”? US undergraduates’ perceptions of non-native English. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15, 187–212.
Lippi-Green, R. (1994). Accent, standard language ideology, and discriminatory pretext in the courts. Language in Society, 23, 163–98.
Lippi-Green, R. (1997). English with an accent: Language, ideology and discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge.
Locke, J. (1997). A theory of neurolinguistic development. Brain and Language, 58, 265–326.
Long, M. (2005). Problems with supposed counter-evidence to the Critical Period Hypothesis. IRAL, 43, 287–317.
Lord, G. (2005). (How) Can we teach foreign language pronunciation? On the effects of a Spanish phonetics course. Hispania, 88, 557–67.
Lord, G. (2008). Podcasting communities and second language pronunciation. Foreign Language Annals, 41(2), 364–79.
Lord, G. (2010). The combined effects of immersion and instruction on second language pronunciation. Foreign Language Annals, 43, 488–503.
Low, E. (2006). A cross-varietal comparison of de-accenting and given information: Implications for international intelligibility and pronunciation teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 739–61.
Lowie, W., Verspoor, M., and DeBot, K. (2009). A dynamic view of second language development across the lifespan. In K. DeBot and R. Schrauf (eds.), Language development over the lifespan (125–45). New York: Routledge.
Lybeck, K. (2002). Cultural identification and second language pronunciation of Americans in Norway. Modern Language Journal, 86, 174–91.
Lyster, R. (1998). Negotiation of form, recasts, and explicit correction in relation to error types and learner repair in immersion classrooms. Language Learning, 48, 183–218.
McCandless, P. and Winitz, H. (1986). Test of pronunciation following one year of comprehension instruction in college German. Modern Language Journal, 70, 355–62.
Macdonald, D., Yule, G., and Powers, M. (1994). Attempts to improve English L2 pronunciation: The variable effects of different types of instruction. Language Learning, 44, 75–100.
Macias, R. (1997). Bilingual workers and language use rules in the workplace: A case study of a nondiscriminatory language policy. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 127, 53–70.
MacIntyre, P., Baker, S., Clément, R., and Donovan, L. (2003). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. In Z. Dörnyei (ed.), Attitudes, orientations and motivations in language learning (137–65). Malden, MA. Blackwell.
MacKay, I., Flege, J., and Imai, S. (2006). Evaluating the effects of chronological age and sentence duration on degree of perceived accent. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27, 157–83.
McKay, J. (
2004). All day, all night, the phone calls come in. Outsourcing the future? Part Three.
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 1. Retrieved from
http://www.post-gazette.com Macken, M. and Ferguson, C. (1987). Phonological universals in language acquisition. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (3–22). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Mackey, A., Gass, S., and McDonough, K. (2000). How do learners perceive interactional feedback?Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 471–97.
Mackie, D. and Devos, T. (2000). Intergroup emotions: Explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 602–16.
McLaughlin, B. (1990). The relationship between first and second languages: Language proficiency and language aptitude. In B. Harley et al. (eds.), The development of second language proficiency (158–74). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
McLaughlin, B. and Heredia, R. (1996). Information-processing approaches to research on second language acquisition and use. In W. Ritchie and T. Bhatia (eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (213–28). New York: Academic Press.
McLean, M. (1927). Good American speech. New York: E.P. Dutton.
MacLeod, A. and Stoehl-Gammon, C. (2010). What is the impact of age of second language acquisition on the production of consonants and vowels among childhood bilinguals?International Journal of Bilingualism, 14, 400–21.
Major, R. (1992). Losing English as a first language. Modern Language Journal, 76, 190–208.
Major, R. (1993). Sociolinguistic factors in loss and acquisition of phonology. In K. Hyltenstam and A. Viberg (eds.), Progression and regression in language: Sociocultural, neuropsychological and linguistic perspectives (463–78). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Major, R. (2001). Foreign accent: The ontogeny and phylogeny of second language phonology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Major, R. (2004). Gender and stylistic variation in second language phonology. Language Variation and Change, 16, 169–88.
Major, R. (2007). Identifying a foreign accent in an unfamiliar language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29, 539–56.
Major, R. (2008). Transfer in second language phonology. In J. Hansen-Edwards and M. Zampini (eds.), Phonology and second language acquisition (63–94). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Major, R. (2010). First language attrition in foreign accent perception. International Journal of Bilingualism, 14, 163–83.
Major, R., Fitzmaurice, S., Bunta, F., and Balasubramanian, C. (2005). The effects of nonnative accents on listening comprehension: Implications for ESL assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 36, 173–90.
Markham, D. (1997). Phonetic imitation, accent, and the learner. Travaux de l’Institut de Linguistique de Lund, 33, 3–269.
Martohardjono, G. and Flynn, S. (1995). Is there an age factor for universal grammar? In D. Singleton and Z. Lengyel (eds.), The age factor in second language acquisition (135–53). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Marx, N. (2002). Never quite a “native speaker”: Accent and identity in the L2 – and the L1. Canadian Modern Language Review, 59(2), 264–81.
Masgoret, A. and Gardner, R. (2003). Attitudes, motivation and second language learning: A meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language Learning, 53, 123–63.
Matsuda, M. (1991). Voices of America: Accent, antidiscrimination law, and a jurisprudence for the last reconstruction. Yale Law Journal, 100, 1329–1407.
Melchers, G. and Shaw, P. (2003). World Englishes. London: Arnold.
Merskin, D. (2011). Media, minorities, and meaning. New York: Peter Lang.
Meyerhoff, M. (2002). Communities of practice. In J. Chambers and P. Trudgill (eds.), Handbook of language variation and change (475–99). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Miller, J. (2003). Audible difference: ESL and social identity in school. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Milroy, J. (1998). Children can’t speak or write properly any more. In L. Bauer and P. Trudgill (eds.), Language myths (58–65). London: Penguin.
Milroy, J. (1999). The consequences of standardisation in descriptive linguistics. In T. Bex and R. Watts (eds.), Standard English: The widening debate (16–39). Routledge: London.
Milroy, J. and Milroy, L. (1985a). Authority in language. Investigating language prescription and standardization. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Milroy, J. and Milroy, L. (1985b). Linguistic change, social network and speaker innovation. Journal of Linguistics, 21, 339–84.
Milroy, L. (1999). Standard English and language ideology. In T. Bex and R. Watts (eds.), Standard English: The widening debate (173–206). London: Routledge.
Moag, R. (1992). The life cycle of non-native Englishes: A case study. In B. Kachru (ed.), The other tongue: English across cultures (233–52). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Molnár, H. (2010). Der Einfluss des Faktors Alter auf die Aussprachekompetenz in der L2. Ergebnisse einer Pilotstudie mit DaZ-Lernern. Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, 15, 42–60.
Morley, J. (1991). The pronunciation component in teaching English to speakers of other languages. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 481–520.
Morley, J. (1996a). Second language speech/pronunciation: Acquisition, instruction, standards, variation and accent. Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics, 1996, 140–60. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Morley, J. (1996b). A multidimensional curriculum design for speech-pronunciation instruction. In J. Morley (ed.), Pronunciation pedagogy and theory: New views, new directions (64–91). Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Moyer, A. (1999). Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology: The critical factors of age, motivation and instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 81–108.
Moyer, A. (2004). Age, accent and experience in second language acquisition. An integrated approach to critical period inquiry. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Moyer, A. (2005). Formal and informal experiential realms in German as a foreign language: A preliminary investigation. Foreign Language Annals, 38, 377–87.
Moyer, A. (2006). Language contact and confidence in L2 listening comprehension: A pilot study of advanced learners of German. Foreign Language Annals, 39, 255–75.
Moyer, A. (2007a). Do language attitudes determine accent? A study of bilinguals in the US. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 28, 1–17.
Moyer, A. (2007b). Empirical considerations on the age factor in L2 phonology. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 15, 109–27.
Moyer, A. (2008). Conceptions of L2 phonology: Integrating cognitive and sociolinguistic approaches to research and teaching. In S. Katz and J. Watzinger-Tharp (eds.), Conceptions of L2 grammar: Theoretical approaches and their application in the L2 classroom (51–67). Boston, MA: Heinle Cengage Learning.
Moyer, A. (2009). Input as a critical means to an end: Quantity and quality of experience in L2 phonological attainment. In M. Young-Scholten and T. Piske (eds.), Input matters in SLA (159–174). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Moyer, A. (2010). Do gender differences in L2 accent really exist? Paper presented to the meeting of American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL), March, Atlanta, GA.
Moyer, A. (2011). An investigation of experience in L2 phonology. Canadian Modern Language Review, 67, 191–216.
Moyer, A. (2012). The exceptional learner: Legend or myth? Paper presented to the meeting of American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL), March, Boston, MA.
Mugglestone, L. (2003). Talking proper: The rise of accent as a social symbol. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Müller, R. (1996). Innateness, autonomy, universality? Neurobiological approaches to language. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 611–75.
Mumhall, K., Jones, J., Callan, D., Kuratate, T., and Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (2004). Visual prosody and speech intelligibility: Head movement improves auditory speech perception. Psychological Science, 15, 133–7.
Muñoz, C. (2008). Symmetries and asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2 learning. Applied Linguistics, 29, 578–96.
Muñoz, C. (2011). Input and long-term effects of starting age in foreign language learning. IRAL 49, 113–33.
Muñoz, C. (ed.) (2006a). Age and the rate of foreign language learning. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Muñoz, C. (ed.) (2006b). The effects of age on foreign language learning: The BAF project. In C. Muñoz (ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning (1–40). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Muñoz, C. and Singleton, D. (2007). Foreign accent in advanced learners: Two successful profiles. EUROSLA Yearbook, 7, 171–90.
Muñoz, C. and Singleton, D. (2011). A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate attainment. Language Teaching, 44, 1–35.
Munro, M. (2003). A primer on accent discrimination in the Canadian context. TESL Canada Journal, 20, 38–51.
Munro, M. (2008). Aptitude for novel speech sounds and sound sequences: Implications for second-language pronunciation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Irvine, CA.
Munro, M. and Derwing, T. (1998). The effects of speaking rate on listener evaluations of native and foreign-accented speech. Language Learning, 48, 159–82.
Munro, M. and Derwing, T. (1999). Foreign accent, comprehensibility, and intelligibility in the speech of second language learners. In J. Leather (ed.), Phonological issues in language learning (285–310). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Munro, M. and Derwing, T. (2001). Modeling perceptions of the accentedness and comprehensibility of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 451–68.
Munro, M. and Mann, V. (2005). Age of immersion as predictor of foreign accent. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26, 311–41.
Munro, M., Derwing, T., and Morton, S. (2006). The mutual intelligibility of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 111–31.
Munro, M., Derwing, T., and Sato, K. (2006). Salient accents, covert attitudes: Consciousness-raising for pre-service second language teachers. Prospect, 21, 67–79.
Mutz, D. and Goldman, S. (2010). Mass media. In J. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, P. Glick, and V. Esses (eds.), The Sage handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (241–57). London: Sage Publications.
Nakamura, S. (2011). Characteristics of contrast between the stressed and the unstressed in rhythm units observed in duration structure in English speech by Japanese learners. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 15, 177–89.
Nardo, D. and Reiterer, S. (2009). Musicality and phonetic language aptitude. In G. Dogil and S. Reiterer (eds.), Language talent and brain activity (213–55). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Nemiroff, G. (2000). No language to die in. In K. Ogulnick (ed.), Language crossings: Negotiating the self in a multicultural world (13–20). New York: Teachers College Press.
Neri, A., Cucchiarini, C., Strik, H., and Boves, L. (2002). The pedagogy–technology interface in computer assisted pronunciation training. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15, 441–67.
Nesdale, D. and Rooney, R. (1996). Evaluations and stereotyping of accented speakers by pre-adolescent children. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15, 133–54.
Neufeld, G. (1987). On the acquisition of prosodic and articulatory features in adult language learning. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (321–32). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Neufeld, G. (1988). Phonological asymmetry in second-language learning and performance. Language Learning, 38, 531–59.
Newport, E. (1991). Contrasting conceptions of the critical period for language. In S. Carey and R. Gelman (eds.), The epigenesis of mind (111–30). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Nguyen, B. (1993). Accent discrimination and the test of spoken English: A call for an objective assessment of the comprehensibility of nonnative speakers. California Law Review, 81, 1325–61.
Niedzielski, N. (1999). The effect of social information on the perception of sociolinguistic variables. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 18, 62–85.
Niedzielski, N. and Preston, D. (2003). Folk linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Nihalani, P. (2010). Globalization and international intelligibility. In M. Saxena and T. Omoniyi (eds.), Contending with globalization in world Englishes (23–44). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Nikolov, M. (2000). The Critical Period Hypothesis reconsidered: Successful adult learners of Hungarian and English. IRAL, 38, 109–24.
Noels, K. (2005). Orientations to learning German: Heritage language learning and motivational substrates. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 62, 285–312.
Noels, K. and Clément, R. (1989). Orientation to learning German: The effects of language heritage on second language acquisition. Canadian Modern Language Review, 45, 245–57.
Norton Pierce, B. (1995). Social identity, investment and language learning. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 9–31.
Nowacka, M. (2011). The productive and receptive acquisition of consonants and connected speech by Polish students of English. In J. Arabski and A. Wojtaszek (eds.), The acquisition of L2 phonology (59–73). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
O’Grady, W. (2003). The radical middle: Nativism without universal grammar. In C. Doughty and M. Long (eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (43–62). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
O’Malley, J. and Chamot, A. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Obler, L. (1989). Exceptional second language learners. In S. Gass, C. Madden, D. Preston, and L. Selinker (eds.), Variation in second language acquisition, Vol. II: Psycholinguistic issues (141–59). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Obler, L. (1993). Neurolinguistic aspects of second language development and attrition. In K. Hyltenstam and A. Viberg (eds.), Progression and regression in language: Sociocultural, neuropsychological and linguistic perspectives (178–95). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Obler, L. and Gjerlow, K. (1999). Language and the brain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Olson, L. and Samuels, S. (1982) The relationship between age and accuracy of foreign language pronunciation. In S. Krashen, R. Scarcella, and M. Long (eds), Child–adult differences in second language acquisition (67–75). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Oppliger, P. (2007). Effects of gender stereotyping on socialization. In R. Preiss, B. Gayle, N. Burrell, M. Allen, and J. Bryant (eds.), Mass media effects research (199–214). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Orth, J. (1982). Evaluational reactions to spoken language: A dilemma for the teaching and testing of speaking proficiency. Journal of the Linguistic Association of the Southwest, 5, 216–33.
Ortmeyer, C. and Boyle, J. (1985). The effect of accent differences on comprehension. RELC Journal, 16, 48–53.
Osburne, A. (2003). Pronunciation strategies of advanced ESOL learners. IRAL, 41, 131–43.
Oxford, R. (1990.) Language learning strategies. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Oyama, S. (1976). A sensitive period for the acquisition of a non-native phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5, 261–83.
Paradis, M. (1997). The cognitive neuropsychology of bilingualism. In A. DeGroot and J. Kroll (eds.), Tutorials in bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (331–54). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Paradis, M. (2007). L1 attrition features predicted by a neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism. In B. Köpke, M. Schmid, M. Keijzer, and S. Dostert (eds.), Language attrition: Theoretical perspectives (121–33). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Pardo, J. (2006). On phonetic convergence during conversational interaction. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 119, 2382–93.
Parrino, A. (1998). The politics of pronunciation and the adult learner. In T. Smoke (ed.), Adult ESL: Politics, pedagogy, and participation in classroom and community programs (171–84). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Pavlenko, A. and Lantolf, J. (2000). Second language learning as participation and the (re)construction of selves. In J. Lantolf (ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (155–78). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Pawlak, M. (2011). Students’ successes and failures in learning foreign language pronunciation: Insights from diary data. In J. Arabski and A. Wojtaszek (eds.), The acquisition of L2 phonology (165–82). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Pennington, M. (1989). Teaching pronunciation from the top down. RELC Journal, 20, 20–38.
Pennington, M. (1999). Computer-aided pronunciation pedagogy: Promise, limitations, directions. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 12, 427–40.
Pennington, M. and Richards, J. (1986). Pronunciation revisited. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 207–25.
Perani, D., Paulesu, E., Sebastián-Gallés, N., Dupoux, E., Dehaene, S., Bettinardi, V., Cappa, S., Fazio, F., and Mehler, J. (1998). The bilingual brain. Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language. Brain, 121, 1841–52.
Perfetti, C. and Bolger, D. (2004). The brain might read that way. Scientific Studies of Reading, 8, 293–304.
Perfetti, C. and Liu, Y. (2005). Orthography to phonology and meaning: Comparisons across and within writing systems. Reading and Writing, 18, 193–210.
Perry, G. and Harris, C. (2002). Linguistically sensitive periods for second language acquisition. Proceedings of the Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
Piatt, B. (1993). Language on the job: Balancing business needs and employee rights. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.
Pickering, L. (2001). The role of tone choice in improving ITA communication in the classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 233–55.
Pickering, L. (2006). Current research on intelligibility in English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 219–33.
Pickering, L. (2009). Intonation as a pragmatic resource in ELF interaction. Intercultural Pragmatics, 6, 235–55.
Piller, I. (2002). Passing for a native speaker: Identity and success in second language learning. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 6, 179–206.
Piper, T. (1987). On the difference between L1 and L2 acquisition of phonology. The Canadian Journal of Linguistics, 32, 245–59.
Piske, T. (2007). Implications of James E. Flege’s research for the foreign language classroom. In O. Bohn and M. Munro (eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning (301–30). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Piske, T. (2008). Phonetic awareness, phonetic sensitivity and the second language learner. In J. Cenoz and N. Hornberger (eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education, 2nd edn., Vol. 6: Knowledge about language (155–66). New York: Springer.
Piske, T., MacKay, I., and Flege, J. (2001). Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: A review. Journal of Phonetics 29, 191–215.
Plante, E., Schmithorst, V., Holland, S., and Byars, A. (2006). Sex differences in the activation of language cortex during childhood. Neuropsychologia, 44, 1210–21.
Polat, N. and Mahalingappa, L. (2010). Gender differences in identity and acculturation patterns in L2 accent attainment. Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 9, 17–35.
Polka, L. (1995). Linguistic influences in adult perception of non-native vowel contrasts. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97, 1286–96.
Polka, L. and Werker, J. (1994). Developmental changes in perception of nonnative vowel contrasts. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20, 421–35.
Prescher, P. (2007). Identity, immigration and first language attrition. In B. Köpke, M. Schmid, M. Keijzer, and S. Dostert (eds.), Language attrition: Theoretical perspectives (189–204). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Preston, D. (1999). Handbook of perceptual dialectology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Preston, D. and Yamagata, A. (2004). Katakana representation of English loanwords: Mora conservation and variable learner strategies. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 8, 359–79.
Purcell, E. and Suter, R. (1980). Predictors of pronunciation accuracy: A re-examination. Language Learning, 30, 271–87.
Purnell, T., Idsardi, W., and Baugh, J. (1999). Perceptual and phonetic experiments on American English dialect identification. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 18, 10–30.
Rahman, T. (2009). Language ideology, identity and the commodification of language in the call centers of Pakistan. Language in Society, 38, 233–58.
Ramirez Verdugo, D. (2006). A study of intonation awareness and learning in non-native speakers of English. Language Awareness, 15, 141–59.
Reiterer, S. (2009). Brain and language talent: A synopsis. In G. Dogil and S. Reiterer (eds.), Language talent and brain activity (155–91). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Reves, R. (1978, August). The ability to imitate as a characteristic of the good language learner. Paper presented to Fifth International Congress of Applied Linguistics (AILA), Montreal.
Rey, A. (1977). Accent and employability: Language attitudes. Language Sciences, 47, 7–12.
Rindal, U. (2010). Constructing identity with L2: Pronunciation and attitudes among Norwegian learners of English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 14, 240–61.
Riney, T. and Takagi, N. (1999). Global foreign accent and voice onset time among Japanese EFL speakers. Language Learning, 49, 275–302.
Riney, T., Takagi, N., and Inutsuka, K. (2005). Phonetic parameters and perceptual judgments of accent in English by American and Japanese listeners. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 441–66.
Robinson, P. (2003). Attention and memory during SLA. In C. Doughty and M. Long (eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (631–78). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Robinson, W. P. (1979). Speech markers and social class. In K. R. Scherer and H. Giles (eds.), Social markers in speech (211–50). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Rogers, C., Dalby, J., and Nishi, K. (2004). Effects of noise and proficiency on intelligibility of Chinese-accented English. Language and Speech, 47, 139–54.
Rojczyk, A. (2011). Perception of English voice onset time continuum by Polish learners. In J. Arabski and A. Wojtaszek (eds.), The acquisition of L2 phonology (37–58). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Ross, E. and Monnot, M. (2008). Neurology of affective prosody and its functional–anatomic organization in right hemisphere. Brain and Language, 104, 51–74.
Rota, G. and Reiterer, S. (2009). Cognitive aspects of pronunciation talent. In G. Dogil and S. Reiterer (eds.), Language talent and brain activity (67–96). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Rubin, D. (1992). Nonlanguage factors affecting undergraduates’ judgments of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. Research in Higher Education, 33, 511–31.
Rubin, D., DeHart, J., and Heintzman, M. (1991). Effects of accented speech and culture-typical compliance-gaining style on subordinates’ impressions of managers. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15, 267–83.
Rubin, D. and Smith, K. (1990). Effects of accent, ethnicity and lecture topic on undergraduates’ perceptions of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14, 337–53.
Rubio-Marin, R. (2003). Language rights: Exploring the competing rationales. In W. Kymlicka and A. Patten, Language rights and political theory (52–79). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Russell, J. and Spada, N. (2006). The effectiveness of corrective feedback for the acquisition of L2 grammar. In J. Norris and L. Ortega (eds.), Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching (133–64). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Ryan, E., Carranza, M., and Moffie, R. (1975). Mexican American reactions to accented English. In J. Berry and W. Lonner (eds.), Applied cross-cultural psychology: Selected papers from the Second International Conference of the IACCP. Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger.
Ryan, E., Carranza. M., and Moffie, R. (1977). Reactions toward varying degrees of accentedness in the speech of Spanish–English bilinguals. Language and Speech, 20, 267–73.
Rymarczyk, K. and Grabowska, A. (2007). Sex differences in brain control of prosody. Neuropsychologia, 45, 921–30.
Rysiewicz, J. (2008). Cognitive profiles of (un)successful FL learners: A cluster analytical study. Modern Language Journal, 92, 87–99.
Safar, A. and Kormos, J. (2008). Revisiting problems with foreign language aptitude. IRAL, 46, 113–36.
Saito, K. (2011). Examining the role of explicit phonetic instruction in native-like and comprehensible pronunciation development: An instructed SLA approach to L2 phonology. Language Awareness, 20, 45–61.
Sanchez, K. (1995). For want of the standard educated variety of Spanish . . . a German accent: A sociolinguistic study. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 116, 5–16.
Sanz, C. and Morgan-Short, K. (2005). Explicitness in pedagogical interventions: Input, practice and feedback. In C. Sanz (ed.), Mind and context in adult second language acquisition: Methods, theory and practice (234–63). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Sato, C. (1987). Phonological processes in second language acquisition: Another look at interlanguage syllable structure. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (248–60). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Sawyer, M. and Ranta, L. (2001). Aptitude, individual differences, and instructional design. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (319–53). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Scales, J., Wennerstrom, A., Richard, D., and Wu, S. (2006). Language learners’ perceptions of accent. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 715–38.
Schairer, K. (1992). Native speaker reaction to non-native speech. Modern Language Journal, 76, 309–19.
Schiappa, E. (2008). Beyond representational correctness: Rethinking criticism of popular media. Albany, NY: State University of New York.
Schiffler, L. (2001). Recent neurophysiological studies of the brain and their relation to foreign language learning. IRAL, 39, 327–32.
Schmid, M. and Köpke, B. (2007). Bilingualism and attrition. In B. Köpke, M. Schmid, M. Keijzer, and S. Dostert (eds.), Language attrition: Theoretical perspectives (1–8). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Schmid, P. and Yeni-Komshian, G. (1999). The effects of speaker accent and target predictability on perception of mispronunciations. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 42, 56–64.
Schmidt, R. (1992). Psychological mechanisms underlying second language fluency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 357–85.
Schneiderman, E., Bourdages, J., and Champagne, C. (1988). Second-language accent: The relationship between discrimination and perception in acquisition. Language Learning, 38, 1–19.
Schneiderman, E. and Desmarais, C. (1988). A neuropsychological substrate for talent in second-language acquisition. In L. Obler and D. Fein (eds.), The exceptional brain: The neuropsychology of talent and special abilities (103–26). New York: Guilford Press.
Schumann, J. (1975). Affective factors and the problem of age in second language acquisition. Language Learning, 25, 209–35.
Schumann, J. (1978). The pidginization process: A model for second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Schumann, J. (1994). Where is cognition? Emotion and cognition in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 231–42.
Scovel, T. (1981). The effects of neurological age on nonprimary language acquisition. In R. Andersen (ed.), New dimensions in second language acquisition research (33–42). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Scovel, T. (1988). A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. New York: Newbury House.
Scovel, T. (2000). A critical review of the Critical Period research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 20, 213–23.
Seferoglu, G. (2005). Improving students’ pronunciation through accent reduction software. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36, 303–16.
Segalowitz, N. (2003). Automaticity and second languages. In C. Doughty and M. Long (eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (382–408). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Segalowitz, N. and Freed, B. (2004). Context, contact, and cognition in oral fluency acquisition: Learning Spanish in at home and study abroad contexts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 173–99.
Seggie, I. (1983). Attribution of guilt as a function of ethnic attitude and type of crime. Journal of Multicultural and Multilingual Development, 4, 197–206.
Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209–39.
Seidlhofer, B., Breitender, A., and Pitzl, M. (2006). English as a lingua franca in Europe: Challenges for applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 3–34.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. IRAL, 10, 209–31.
Sengstock, M. (2009). Voices of diversity: Multiculturalism in America. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
Sereno, J. and Wang, Y. (2007). Behavioral and cortical effects of learning a second language. In O. Bohn and M. Munro (eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning (239–58). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Setter, J. (2006). Speech rhythm in World Englishes: The case of Hong Kong. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 763–82.
Sharma, D. (2005). Dialect stabilization and speaker awareness in non-native varieties of English. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9, 194–224.
Sharwood-Smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds: On the relevance of different types of language information for the L2 learner. Second Language Research, 7, 118–32.
Sheen, Y. (2006). Exploring the relationship between characteristics of recasts and learner uptake. Language Teaching Research, 10, 361–92.
Shen, X. (1990). Ability of learning the prosody of an intonational language by speakers of a tonal language: Chinese speakers learning French prosody. IRAL, 28, 119–34.
Shockey, L. (1984). All in a flap: Long-term accommodation in phonology. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 46, 87–95.
Shuy, R. (2008). Fighting over words. Language and civil law cases. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Sifakis, N. and Sougari, A. (2005). Pronunciation issues and EIL pedagogy in the periphery: A survey of Greek state school teachers’ beliefs. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 467–88.
Simon, E. (2005). How native-like do you want to sound? A study of the pronunciation target of advanced learners of English in Flanders. Moderna Sprak, 99, 12–21.
Singleton, D. (2005). The Critical Period Hypothesis: A coat of many colors. IRAL, 43, 269–85.
Singleton, D. and Ryan, L. (2004). Language acquisition: The age factor, 2nd ed. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Smit, U. (2002). The interaction of motivation and achievement in advanced EFL pronunciation learners. IRAL, 40, 89–116.
Smith, G. (2005). I want to speak like a native speaker: The case for lowering the plaintiff’s burden of proof in Title VII accent discrimination cases. Ohio State Law Journal, 66, 231–67.
Smith, J. and Beckmann, B. (2010). Noticing-reformulation tasks as a stimulus towards continued autonomous phonological development. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics, 16, 35–50.
Smith, L. and Bisazza, J. (1982). The comprehensibility of three varieties of English for college students in seven countries. Language Learning, 32, 259–69.
Smith, L. and Rafiqzad, K. (1979). English for cross-cultural communication: The question of intelligibility. TESOL Quarterly, 13, 371–80.
Smith, Z. (2009, Feb. 26). Speaking in tongues. New York Review of Books, 56(3), 41–4.
Snow, C. and Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. (1982). The critical period for language acquisition: Evidence from second language learning. In S. Krashen, R. Scarcella, and M. Long (eds.), Child–adult differences in second language acquisition (93–111). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Solan, L. and Tiersma, P. (2004). Author identification in American courts. Applied Linguistics, 25, 448–65.
Sommer, I., Aleman, A., Somers, M., Boks, M., and Kahn, R. (2008). Sex differences in handedness, asymmetry of the planum temporale and functional language lateralization. Brain Research, 24, 76–88.
Spada, N. (2011). SLA research and L2 pedagogy. Misapplications and questions of relevance. Presentation to Second Language Research Forum, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.
Spezzini, S. (2004). English immersion in Paraguay: Individual and sociocultural dimensions of language learning and use. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 7, 412–31.
Spoelders, M., Guiora, A., VanLeeuwen, K., Meuleman, C., VanBesien, F., Vyt, A., and DeSoete, G. (1996). A psycholinguistic study of pronunciation of bilinguals: The case of Belgium. In T. Hickey and J. Williams (eds.), Language, education and society in a changing world (117–26). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Steinhauer, K., White, E., and Drury, J. (2009). Temporal dynamics of late second language acquisition: Evidence from event-related potentials. Second Language Research, 25, 13–41.
Stern, H. (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner?Canadian Modern Language Review, 31, 304–18.
Stowe, L. and Sabourin, L. (2005). Imaging the processing of a second language: Effects of maturation and proficiency on the neural processes involved. IRAL, 43, 329–53.
Strange, W. (1995). Cross-language study of speech perception: A historical review. In W. Strange (ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research (3–45). Baltimore, MD: York Press.
Strange, W. (2002). Speech perception and language learning: Wode’s developmental model of speech perception revisited. In P. Burmeister, T. Piske, and A. Rohde (eds.), An integrated view of language development: Papers in honor of Henning Wode (245–61). Trier, Germany: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.
Strange, W. (2007). Cross-language phonetic similarity of vowels. In O. Bohn and M. Munro (eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning (35–55). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Strange, W. and Shafer, V. (2008). Speech perception in second language learners. the re-education of selective perception. In J. Hansen-Edwards and M. Zampini (eds.), Phonology and second language acquisition (153–191). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Suter, R. (1976). Predictors of pronunciation accuracy in second language learning. Language Learning, 26, 233–53.
Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. In C. Doughty and J. Williams (eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (64–81). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tabouret-Keller, A. (1997). Language and identity. In F. Coulmas (ed.), The handbook of sociolinguistics (315–26). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Tahta, S., Wood, M., and Loewenthal, K. (1981). Foreign accents: Factors relating to transfer of accent from the first language to the second language. Language and Speech, 24, 265–72.
Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin and S. Worschel (eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Tanner, M. and Landon, M. (2009). The effects of computer-assisted pronunciation readings on ESL learners’ use of pausing, stress, intonation, and overall comprehensibility. Language Learning and Technology, 13, 51–65.
Tarone, E. (1982). Systematicity and attention in interlanguage. Language Learning, 32, 69–82.
Tarone, E. (1987). The phonology of interlanguage. In G. Ioup and S. Weinberger (eds.), Interlanguage phonology (70–85). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Taylor, D. (1977). Bilingualism and intergroup relations. In P. Hornby (ed.), Bilingualism: Psychological, social and educational implications (67–75). New York: Academic Press.
Tees, R. and Werker, J. (1984). Perceptual flexibility: Maintenance or recovery of the ability to discriminate non-native speech sounds. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 38, 579–90.
Thakerer, J., Giles, H., and Cheshire, J. (1982). Speech accommodation theory. In C. Fraser and K. Scherer (eds.), Advances in the social psychology of language (205–55). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Thiederman, S. (1991). Bridging cultural barriers for corporate success: How to manage the multicultural work force. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Thompson, I. (1991). Foreign accents revisited: The English pronunciation of Russian immigrants. Language Learning, 41, 177–204.
Tiersma, P. and Solan, L. (2002). The linguist on the witness stand: Forensic linguistics in American courts. Language, 78, 221–39.
Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2003). The relationship between musical ability and foreign languages. In T. Tokuhama-Espinosa (ed.), The multilingual mind (65–80). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Tomlin, R. and Villa, V. (1994). Attention in cognitive science and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 183–203.
Trofimovich, P. and Baker, W. (2006). Learning second language suprasegmentals: Effect of L2 experience on prosody and fluency characteristics of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 1–30.
Trofimovich, P., Baker, W., and Mack, M. (2001). Context and experience-based effects on the learning of vowels in a second language. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences, 31, 167–86.
Troutt, D. (2005). Defining who we are in society. In K. Walters and M. Brody (eds.), What’s language got to do with it? (289–93). New York: Norton.
Trudgill, P. (1999). Standard English: What it isn’t. In T. Bex and R. Watts (eds.), Standard English: The widening debate (117–28). Routledge: London.
Trudgill, P. and Hannah, J. (2008). International English. A guide to the varieties of Standard English, 5th edn. London: Hodder Education.
Tse, L. (2001). Why don’t they learn English? Separating fact from fallacy in the US language debate. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.
Ullman, M. (2005). A cognitive neuroscience perspective on second language acquisition: The Declarative/Procedural Model. In C. Sanz (ed.), Mind and context in adult second language acquisition. Methods, theory and practice (141–78). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Van Els, T. and DeBot, K. (1987). The role of intonation in foreign accent. Modern Language Journal, 71, 147–55.
Van Geert, P. (2009). A comprehensive dynamic systems theory of language development. In K. DeBot and R. Schrauf (eds.), Language development over the lifespan (60–104). New York: Routledge.
Van Wijngaarden, S., Steeneken, H., and Houtgast, T. (2002). Quantifying the intelligibility of speech in noise for non-native talkers. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 112, 3004–13.
VanPatten, B. and Cadierno, T. (1993). Explicit instruction and input processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 225–43.
Verhoeven, L. (2007). Early bilingualism, language transfer and phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics, 28, 425–39.
Victori, M. and Tragant, E. (2003). Learner strategies: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study of primary and high school EFL learners. In M. Garcia Mayo and M. Garcia Lecumberri (eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language (182–209). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Vornik, L., Sharman, S., and Garry, M. (2003). The power of the spoken word: Sociolinguistic cues influence the misinformation effect. Memory, 11, 101–9.
Vygotsky, L. (1987). The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 1. Thinking and speaking. New York: Plenum Press.
Wallentin, M. (2009). Putative sex differences in verbal abilities and language cortex: A critical review. Brain and Language, 108, 175–83.
Walsh, T. and Diller, K. (1981). Neurolinguistic considerations on the optimum age for second language learning. In K. Diller (ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (3–21). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Wang, X. and Munro, M. (2004). Computer-based training for learning English vowel contrasts. System, 32, 539–52.
Wardhaugh, R. (1999). Proper English: Myths and misunderstandings about language. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Wardhaugh, R. (2010). An introduction to sociolinguistics, 6th edn. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Wattendorf, E. and Festman, J. (2008). Images of the multilingual brain: The effect of age of second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 28, 3–24.
Weber-Fox, C. and Neville, H. (1996). Maturational constraints on functional specializations for language processing: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilingual speakers. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8, 231–56.
Webster, N. (1789). An American selection of lessons in reading and speaking: Calculated to improve the minds and refine the taste of youth. Hartford, CT: Hudson and Goodwin.
Wennerstrom, A. (1994). Intonational meaning in English discourse: A study of non-native speakers. Applied Linguistics, 15, 399–420.
Wennerstrom, A. (1998). Intonation as cohesion in academic discourse: A study of Chinese speakers of English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 1–25.
Wennerstrom, A. (2001). The music of everyday speech: Prosody and discourse analysis. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Werker, J. and Pegg, J. (1992). Infant speech perception and phonological acquisition. In C. Ferguson, L. Menn, and C. Stoel-Gammon (eds.), Phonological development: Models, research, implications (285–311). Timonium, MD: York Press.
Werker, J. and Tees, R. (2005). Speech perception as a window for understanding plasticity and commitment in language systems of the brain. Developmental Psychobiology, 46, 233–51.
White, L. (2003). On the nature of interlanguage representation: Universal grammar in the second language. In C. Doughty and M. Long (eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (19–42). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Wilkerson, M. and Salmons, J. (2008). “Good old immigrants of yesteryear” who didn’t learn English: Germans in Wisconsin. American Speech, 83, 259–83.
Willemyns, M., Gallois, D., Callan, V., and Pittam, J. (1997). Accent accommodation in the job interview. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 16, 3–22.
Williams, G. (2011). Examining classroom negotiation strategies of international teaching assistants. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 5, 1–16.
Wode, H. (1983). The beginnings of non-school room L2 phonological acquisition. A survey of problems and issues based on data from English as L2 with German as L1. In H. Wode (ed.), Papers on language acquisition, language learning and language teaching (150–65). Heidelberg, Germany: Julius Groos Verlag.
Wode, H. (1992). Categorical perception and segmental coding in the ontogeny of sound systems. In C. Ferguson, L. Menn, and C. Stoehl-Gammon (eds.), Phonological development: Models, research, implications (605–31). Timonium, MD: York Press.
Yabukoshi, T. and Takeuchi, O. (2009). Language learning strategies used by lower secondary school learners in a Japanese EFL context. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19, 136–72.
Young-Scholten, M. (2002). Orthographic input in L2 phonological development. In P. Burmeister, T. Piske, and A. Rohde (eds.), An integrated view of language development. Papers in honor of Henning Wode (263–79). Trier, Germany: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.
Young-Scholten, M. and Archibald, J. (2000). Second language syllable structure. In J. Archibald (ed.), Second language acquisition and linguistic theory (64–101). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Yule, G., Hoffman, P., and Damico, J. (1987). Paying attention to pronunciation: The role of self-monitoring in perception. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 765–68.
Yuracko, K. (2006). Trait discrimination as race discrimination: An argument about assimilation. George Washington Law Review, 74, 365–438.
Zampini, M. (2008). L2 speech production research. In J. Hansen Edwards and M. Zampini (eds.), Phonology and second language acquisition (219–49). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Zatorre, R. and Samson, S. (1991). Role of the right temporal neocortex in retention of pitch in auditory short-term memory. Brain, 114, 2403–17.
Zhang, L. (2004). Awareness-raising in the TEFL phonology classroom: Student voices and sociocultural and psychological considerations. ITL, Review of Applied Linguistics, 145(1), 219–68.
Zuengler, J. (1982). Applying accommodation theory to variable performance data in L2. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 4, 181–92.
Zuengler, J. (1988). Identity markers and L2 pronunciation. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 10, 33–49.
