Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
  1. Home
  2. Books
  3. Hate Speech
  • Cited by 2
      • Show more authors
      • You may already have access via personal or institutional login
    • Select format
    • Publisher:
      Cambridge University Press
      Publication date:
      04 December 2024
      16 January 2025
      ISBN:
      9781009534666
      9781009534673
      9781009534680
      DOI:
      https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009534666
      Dimensions:
      (229 x 152 mm)
      Weight & Pages:
      0.262kg, 84 Pages
      Dimensions:
      (229 x 152 mm)
      Weight & Pages:
      0.15kg, 84 Pages
      • Subjects:
      Social Psychology, Applied Psychology, Psychology
      Series:
      Elements in Applied Social Psychology
    You may already have access via personal or institutional login
    • Selected: Digital
    Add to cart View cart Buy from Cambridge.org
    Subjects:
    Social Psychology, Applied Psychology, Psychology
    Series:
    Elements in Applied Social Psychology
    Information

    Book description

    Hate speech comprises any form of hateful or contemptuous expression that attacks, degrades, or vilifies people based on their social identities. This Element focuses on hate speech targeting social identities that are devalued by a society's dominant groups, and that is likely to evoke, promote, or legitimize harms such violence, discrimination, and oppression. After detailing the ways in which hate speech is expressed (e.g., through derogatory labels, metaphors, offensive imagery), the production of hate speech is explored at theindividual level (e.g., prejudiced attitudes), group level (e.g., realistic intergroup threat), and societal level (e.g., hierarchy maintenance; free speech protections). A discussion of the effects of blatant and anonymous hate speech on targets (e.g., anxiety and depression) and nontargets (e.g., stereotype activation; desensitization; fomenting violence) follows. Finally, the effectiveness of mitigation efforts isexplored, including use of computer-based technologies, speech codes, confrontation, and counterspeech.

    References

    References

    Adams, G., O’Brien, L. T., & Nelson, J. C. (2006). Perceptions of racism in Hurricane Katrina: A liberation psychology analysis. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 6, 215–235. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1530-2415.2006.00112.x.
    Ahmed, S. (2022). Disinformation sharing thrives with the fear of missing out among low cognitive news users: A cross-national examination of intentional sharing of deep fakes. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 66, 89–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2022.2034826.
    Albarello, F., & Rubini, M. (2018). Linguistic discrimination toward Roma: Can intergroup threat enhance bias? Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 37, 350–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X17725880.
    Al-Rawi, A. (2015). Online reactions to the Muhammed cartoons: YouTube and the virtual ummah. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 54, 261–276. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12191.
    American Psychological Association (2023). Stress in America. www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2023/collective-trauma-recovery.
    Amici Curiae Brief in Support of Plaintiff-Appellant’s Petition for Rehearing En Banc No. 08–16135-BB John Hithon v. Tyson Foods (2010). http://naacpldf.org/files/case_issue/Hithon%20Brief.pdf.
    Anthony, A. (2016, June). Is free speech in British universities under threat. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jan/24/safe-spaces-universities-no-platform-free-speech-rhodes.
    Anzani, A., Lindley, L., Tognasso, G., Galupo, M. P., & Prunas, A. (2021). “Being talked to like I was a sex toy, like being transgender was simply for the enjoyment of someone else”: Fetishism and sexualization of transgender and nonbinary individuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50, 897–911. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10508-021-01935-8.
    Ashburn-Nardo, L., Blanchar, J. C., Petersson, J., Morrise, K. A., & Goodwin, S. A. (2014). Do you say something when it’s your boss? The role of perpetrator power in prejudice confrontation. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 615–636. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12082.
    Ashburn-Nardo, L., Morris, K. A., & Goodwin, S. A. (2008). The confronting prejudiced responses (CPR) model: Applying CPR in organizations. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 7, 332–342. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2008.34251671.
    Associated Press (September 23, 2023). California Governor Signs Law Barring Schoolbook Bans Based on Racial and LGBTQ Teachings. www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-politics-and-policy/california-governor-signs-law-schoolbook-bans-based-racial-lgbtq-teach-rcna117345.
    Atwood, S., Morgenroth, T., & Olson, K. R. (2024). Gender essentialism and benevolent sexism in anti-trans rhetoric. Social Issues and Policy Review, 18, 171–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12099.
    Bacon, A. M., May, J., & Charlesford, J. J. (2021). Understanding public attitudes to hate: Developing and testing a U.K. version of the hate crime beliefs scale. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36, 13365–13390. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520906188.
    Bailey, A. H., Dovidio, J. F., & LaFrance, M. (2022). “Master” of none: Institutional language change linked to gender bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 28, 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000326.
    Balliet, D., Wu, J., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2014). Ingroup favoritism in cooperation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1556–1581. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037737.
    Bareket, O., & Fiske, S. T. (2023). A systematic review of the ambivalent sexism literature: Hostile sexism protects men’s power; benevolent sexism guards traditional gender roles. Psychological Bulletin, 149, 637–698. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000400.
    Beal, D. J., O’Neal, E. C., Ong, J., & Ruscher, J. B. (2000). The ways and means of interracial aggression: Modern racists’ use of covert retaliation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1225–1238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200262005.
    Berbrier, M. (2000). The victim ideology of White supremacists and White separatists in the United States. Sociological Focus, 33, 175–191. Jstor.org/stable/20832074.
    Bettencourt, B. A., Talley, A., Benjamin, A. J., & Valentine, J. (2006). Personality and aggressive behavior under provoking and neutral conditions: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 751–777. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.751.
    Bezrukova, K., Spell, C. S., Perry, J. L., & Jehn, K. A. (2016). A meta-analytical integration over 40 years of research on diversity training evaluation. Psychological Bulletin, 142, 1227–1274. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000067.
    Bianchi, M., Caraghi, A., Piccoli, V., Stragà, M., & Zotti, D. (2019). On the descriptive and expressive function of derogatory group labels: An experimental test. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 38, 756–772. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X19867739.
    Bigsby, E., Bigman, C. A., & Gonzalez, A. M. (2019). Exemplification theory: A review and meta-analysis of exemplar messages. Annals of the International Communication Association, 43, 273–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2019.1681930.
    Bilewicz, M., & Soral, W. (2020). Hate speech epidemic: The dynamic effects of derogatory language on intergroup relations and political radicalization. Political Psychology, 41, 3–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/POPS.12670.
    Bilewicz, M., Soral, W., Marchlewska, M., & Winiewski, M. (2017). When authoritarians confront prejudice: Differential effects of SDO and RWA on support for hate-speech prohibition. Political Psychology, 38, 87–99. https://doi.org/10.111/POPS.12313.
    Blodorn, A., O’Brien, L. T., & Kordys, J. (2010). Responding to sex-based discrimination: Gender differences in perceived discrimination and implications for legal decision-making. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 15, 291–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430211427172.
    Blum, R., Stanton, G. H., Sagi, S., & Richter, E. D. (2007). “Ethnic cleansing” bleaches the atrocities of genocide. European Journal of Public Health, 18, 204–209. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckm011.
    Bor, J., Venkataramani, A. S., Williams, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2018). Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of Black Americans: A population-based, quasi-experimental study. Lancet, 392, 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(18)31130-3.
    Bouvier, G., & Machin, D. (2021). What gets lost in Twitter “cancel culture” hashtags? Calling out racists reveals some limitations of social justice campaigns. Discourse & Society, 32, 307–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926520977215.
    Bower, K. L., Lewis, D. C., Bermúdez, J. M., & Singh, A. A. (2021). Narratives of generativity and resilience among LGBT older adults: Leaving positive legacies despite social stigma and collective trauma. Journal of Homosexuality, 68, 23–251. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2019.1648082.
    Brown, S. (2017). 4 Highlights from a U.S. Senate Hearing on Campus Free Speech. www.chronicle.com/article/4-Highlights-From-a-US/240400.
    Burris, V., Smith, E., & Strahm, A. (2000). White supremacist networks on the internet. Sociological Focus, 33, 215–235. Jstor.org/stable/20832076.
    Campbell, M. R., & Brauer, M. (2021). Is discrimination widespread? Testing assumptions about bias on a university campus. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150, 756–777. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000983.
    Carlson, C. R. (2021). Hate speech. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
    Castelvecchi, D. (2020). Beating biometric bias. Nature, 587, 347–349. www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-03186-4.
    Cavalhieri, K. E., Greer, T. M., Hawkins, D., et al. (2024). The effects of online and institutional racism on the mental health of African Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 30, 476–486. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000585.
    CBS News. (2018). A war on words on college campuses. www.cbsnews.com/news/a-war-of-words-on-college-campuses/.
    Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2018). Who decides what is acceptable speech on campus? Why restricting free speech is not the answer. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13, 299–323. https://doi/org/10.1177/1745691618767324.
    Cerase, F. P. (1974). Expectations and reality: A case study of return migration from the United States to southern Italy. The International Migration Review, 8, 245–263. Jstor.org/stable/3002783.
    Cervone, C., Augoustinos, M., & Maass, A. (2021). The language of derogation and hate: Functions, consequences, and reappropriation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 40, 80–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X20967394.
    Chaney, K. E., & Sanchez, D. T. (2018). The endurance of interpersonal confrontations as a prejudice reduction strategy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44, 418–429. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217741344.
    Chaney, K. E., Sanchez, D. T., Alt, N. P., & Shih, M. J. (2021). The breadth of confrontations as a prejudice reduction strategy. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12, 314–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620919318.
    Chaney, K. E., Sanchez, D. T., & Remedios, J. D. (2016). Organizational identity safety cue transfers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42, 1564–1576. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167216665096.
    Chaplin, K. S., & Montez de Oca, J. (2019). Avoiding the issue: University students’ responses to NFL players national anthem protests. Sociology of Sport Journal, 36, 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2018.0108.
    Charak, R., Vang, M. L., Shevlin, M., et al. (2020). Lifetime interpersonal victimization profiles and mental health problems in a nationally representative panel of trauma-exposed adults in the United Kingdom. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33, 654–664. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22527.
    Charteris-Black, J. (2006). Britain as a container: Immigration metaphors in the 2005 campaign. Discourse & Society, 17, 563–581. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926506066345.
    Chauhan, A., & Foster, J. (2013). Representations of poverty in British newspapers: A case of “othering” the threat. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 24, 390–405. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2179.
    Chekol, M. A., Moges, M. A., & Nigatu, B. A. (2023). Social media hate speech in the walk of Ethiopian political reform: Analysis of hate speech prevalence, severity, and natures. Information, Communication & Society, 26, 218–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2021.1942955.
    Chhabra, A., & Vishwakarma, D. K. (2023). A literature survey on multimodal and multilingual automatic speech identification. Multimedia Systems, 29, 1203–1230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00530-023-01051-8.
    Chong, D. (2006). Free speech and multiculturalism in and out of the academy. Political Psychology, 27, 29–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-9221.2006.00448.x.
    Christodoulides, G., Gerrath, M. H. E. E., & Siamagka, N. T. (2021). Don’t be rude! The effect of content moderation on consumer-brand forgiveness. Psychology & Marketing, 38, 1686–1699. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21458.
    Chu, C., & Ashburn-Nardo, L. (2022). Black Americans’ perspectives on ally confrontations of racial prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 101, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104337.
    Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R., & Kallgren, C. A. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015–1026. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015.
    Cohen-Almagor, R. (2008). Hate in the classroom: Free expression, Holocaust denial, and liberal education. American Journal of Education, 114, 215–241. https://doi.org/10.1086/524316.
    Comas-Díaz, L., Hall, G. N., & Neville, H. A. (2019). Racial trauma: Theory, research, and healing: Introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 74, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000442.
    Cornell Law School. United States Constitution Annotated. www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan.
    Cortina, L. M., Kabat-Farr, D., Leskinen, E. A., Huerta, M., & Magley, V. J. (2011). Selective incivility as modern discrimination in organizations: Evidence and impact. Journal of Management, 39, 1579–1605. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311418835.
    Costello, M., Hawdon, J., & Ratliff, T. N. (2017). Confronting online extremism: The effect of self-help, collective efficacy, and guardianship on being a target for hate speech. Social Science Computer Review, 35, 587–605. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439316666272.
    Costello, K., & Hodson, G. (2009). Exploring the roots of dehumanization: The role of animal-human similarity in promoting immigrant humanization. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 13, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430209347725.
    Cottrell, C. A., & Neuberg, S. L. (2005). Different emotional reactions to different groups: A sociofunctional threat-based approach to “prejudice”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 770–789. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.5.770.
    Council of Europe Committee of Ministers (1997). Recommendation No. R (97) 20 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on “Hate Speech.” https://rm.coe.int/1680505d5b.
    Cowan, G., Heiple, B., Marquez, C., Khatchadourian, D., & McNevin, M. (2005). Heterosexuals’ attitudes toward hate crimes and hate speech against gays and lesbians: Old-fashioned and modern heterosexism. Journal of Homosexuality, 49, 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082V49N02_04.
    Cowan, G., & Hodge, C. (1996). Judgments of hate speech: The effects of target group, publicness, and behavioral responses of the target. Journal of Applied Psychology, 26, 4. 9–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb01854.x.
    Cowan, G., & Mettrick, J. (2002). The effect of target variables and setting on perceptions of hate speech. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 277–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1559-1816.2002.TB00213.x.
    Cowan, G., Resendez, M., Marshall, E., & Quist, R. (2002). Hate speech and constitutional protection: Priming values of equality and freedom. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 247–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00259.
    Cralley, E. L., & Ruscher, J. B. (2005). Lady, girl, female, or woman: Sexism and cognitive busyness predict use of gender-biased nouns. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 300–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X05278391.
    Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A., & O’Brien, L. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 359–378. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.359.
    Crown Prosecution Service (2023, November). CPS North East-Successful Hate Crime Prosecutions. www.cps.gov.uk/north-east/news/cps-north-east-successful-hate-crime-prosecutions-november-2023.
    Culpeper, J. (2021). Impoliteness and hate speech: Compare and contrast. Journal of Pragmatics, 179, 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.04.019.
    Curran, G. (2004). Mainstreaming populist discourse: The race-conscious legacy of neo-populist parties in Australia and Italy. Patterns of Prejudice, 38, 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322032000185578.
    Czopp, A. M., Monteith, M. J., & Mark, A. Y. (2006). Standing up for a change: Reducing bias through interpersonal confrontation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 784–803. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.784.
    Dai, J. D., Lopez, J. J., Brady, L. M., Eason, A. E., & Fryberg, S. A. (2021). Erasing and dehumanizing Natives to protect positive national identity: The Native mascot example. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 15, e12632. https://doi.org/10.1111/SPC3.12632.
    Danso, H. A., Sedlovskaya, A., & Suanda, S. H. (2007). Perceptions of immigrants: Modifying the attitudes of individuals higher in social dominance orientation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1113–1123. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207301015.
    Daumiller, M., & Janke, S. (2020). Effects of performance goals and social norms on academic dishonesty in a test. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 537–559. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12310.
    Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2023). Critical race theory 4th ed. New York: New York University Press.
    Desai, D. (2010). The challenge of new colorblind racism in art education. Art Education, 63, 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/00043125.2010.11519084.
    Devine, P. G., Monteith, M. J., Zuwerink, J. R., & Elliot, A. J. (1991). Prejudice with and without compunction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 817–830. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.817.
    Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2014). “A giant leap for mankind” but what about women? The role of system-justifying ideologies in predicting attitudes toward sexist language. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 33, 667–680. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X14538638.
    Døving, C. A., & Emberland, T. (2021). Bringing the enemy closer to home: “Conspiracy talk” and the Norwegian far right. Patterns of Prejudice, 55, 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2021.1909933.
    Duchscherer, K. M., & Dovidio, J. F. (2016). When memes are mean: Appraisals of and objections to stereotypic memes. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 2, 335–345. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000080.
    Dunlap, J., Chamberlain, A. W., Wesaw, A., & Parnell, A. (2023). Advancing Racial Justice on Campus. National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA). www.naspa.org/report/advancing-racial-justice-on-campus-student-and-administrator-perspectives-on-conditions-for-change.
    Ellingworth, D., Bécares, L., Štastná, M., & Nazroo, J. (2023). 4: Racism and racial discrimination. In Finney, N., Nazroo, J., Bécares, L., Kapadia, D., & Shlomo, N. (Eds.), Racism and Ethnic Inequality in a Time of Crisis (pp. 54–77). Bristol: Policy Press. https://doi.org/10.51952/9781447368861.ch004.
    Ellis, N. T. (August, 2023). Florida’s New Standards on Black History Curriculum Are Creating Outrage www.cnn.com/2023/08/17/us/florida-black-history-backlash-reaj/index.html.
    El Refaie, E. (2001). Metaphors we discriminate by: Naturalized themes in Austrian newspaper articles about asylum seekers. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 5, 352–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9481.00154.
    Esses, V. M., Medianu, S., & Lawson, A. S. (2013). Uncertainty, threat, and the role of the media in promoting the dehumanization of immigrants and refugees. Journal of Social Issues, 69, 518–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12027.
    Fasoli, F., Maass, A., & Carnaghi, A. (2015). Labelling and discrimination: Do homophobic epithets undermine fair distribution of resources. British Journal of Social Psychology, 54, 383–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12090.
    Fasoli, F., Paladino, M. P., Carnaghi, A., et al. (2016). Not “just words”: Exposure to homophobic epithets leads to dehumanizing and physical distancing from gay men. European Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 237–248. https://doi.org/10.0002/ejsp.2148.
    Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In Gilbert, D. T., Fiske, S. T., & Lindzey, G. (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology, Vol. 2. 4th ed. (pp. 357–411). New York: McGraw-Hill.
    Fiske, S. T. (2018). Stereotype content: Warmth and competence endure. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27, 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417738825.
    Flanders, C. E. (2015). Bisexual health: A daily diary analysis of stress and anxiety. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 37, 319–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2015.1079202.
    Forscher, P. S., Cox, W. T. L., Graetz, N., & Devine, P. G. (2015). The motivation to express prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 791–812. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000030.
    Frankish, T., & Bradbury, J. (2012). Telling stories for the next generation: Trauma and nostalgia. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 8, 294–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029070.
    Fryberg, S. A., & Eason, A. E. (2017). Making the invisible visible: Acts of commission and omission. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26, 554–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417720959.
    Galbiati, R., Henry, E., Jacquemet, N., & Lobeck, M. (2021). How laws affect the perception of norms: Empirical evidence from the lockdown. PLoS One, 16, e0256624. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256624.
    Gallagher, C. (2022, October 13). Text Messages between Oath Keepers Founder and Lawyer Not Protected, U.S. Judge Rules. www.reuters.com/legal/text-messages-between-oath-keepers-founder-lawyer-not-protected-us-judge-rules-2022-10-13/.
    Gelber, K., & McNamara, L. (2015). The effects of civil hate speech laws: Lessons from Australia. Law & Society Review, 49, 631–664. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12152.
    Gelber, K., & McNamara, L. (2016). Evidencing the harms of hate speech. Social Identities, 22, 324–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2015.1128810.
    Gerstenfeld, P. B., Grant, D. R., & Chiang, C.-P. (2003). Hate online: A content analysis of extremist internet sites. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 3, 29–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1530-2415.2003.00013.x.
    Glasman, L. R., & Albarricín, D. (2006). Forming attitudes that predict future behavior: A meta-analysis of the attitude-behavior relation. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 778–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.778.
    Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., et al. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763.
    Goff, P., Eberhardt, J., Williams, M., & Jackson, M. (2008). Not yet human: Implicit knowledge, historical dehumanization, and contemporary consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.292.
    Goff, P. A., Jackson, M. C., Di Leone, B. A. L., Culotta, C. M., & DiTomasso, N. A. (2014). The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing Black children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 526–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035663.
    Goldman-Hasbun, J. (2023). The moral discourse of free speech: A virtual ethnographic study. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 2, 463–492. https://doi.org/10.1177/08912416221129880.
    Good, J. J., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Sanchez, D. T. (2012). When do we confront? Perceptions of costs and benefits predict confronting discrimination on behalf of self and others. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312440958.
    Goodman, J. A., Schell, J., Alexander, M. G., & Eidelman, S. (2008). The impact of a derogatory remark on prejudice toward a gay male leader. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 542–555. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00316.x.
    Grabowski, M., Dinh, T. K., Wu, W., & Stockdale, M. S. (2022). The sex-based harassment inventory: A gender status threat measure of sex-based harassment intentions. Sex Roles, 86, 648–666. https://doi.org/10.007/s11199-022-01294-1.
    Gray, K. L., & Stein, K. (2021). “We ‘said her name’ and got zucked:” Black women calling-out the carceral logics of digital platforms. Gender & Society, 35, 538–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/08912432211029393.
    Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1985). The effects of an overheard ethnic slur on evaluations of the target: How to spread a social disease. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(85)90006-X.
    Grupe, D. W., & Nitschke, J. B. (2013). Uncertainty and anticipation in anxiety: An integrated neurobiological and psychological perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14, 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3524.
    Guglielmo, T. A. (2004). White on arrival: Italians, race, color, and power in Chicago, 1890–1945. New York: Oxford University Press.
    Gulker, J. E., Mark, A. Y., & Monteith, M. J. (2013). Confronting prejudice: The who, what, and why of confrontation effectiveness. Social Influence, 8, 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2012.736879.
    Gutierrez, L. J., & Unzueta, M. M. (2021). My kind of guy: Social dominance orientation, hierarchy-relevance, and tolerance of racist job candidates. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 48, 659–675. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672211011031.
    Guynn, J. (2020). Facebook while black: Users call it getting “zucked,” say talking about racism is censored as hate speech. USA Today, 9 July. www.usatoday.com/story/news/2019/04/24/facebook-while-black-zuckedusers-say-they-get-blocked-racism-discussion/2859593002/.
    Hangartner, D., Gennaro, G., Alasiri, S., et al. (2021). Empathy-based counterspeech can reduce racist hate speech in a social media field experiment. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118, e2116310118.
    Hansen, K., & Dovidio, J. F. (2016). Social dominance orientation, nonnative accents, and hiring recommendations. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22, 544–551. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000101.
    Harlow, S., & Benbrook, A. (2019). How #Blacklivesmatter: Exploring the role of hip-hop celebrities in constructing racial identity on Black Twitter, Information. Communication & Society, 22, 352–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1386705.
    Harris, L. T., & Fiske, S. T. (2006). Social neuroscience evidence for dehumanized perception. European Review of Social Psychology, 20, 192–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280902954988.
    Harwood, S. A., Huntt, M. B., Mendenhall, R., & Lewis, J. A. (2012). Racial microaggressions in the residence halls: Experiences of students of color at a predominantly White university. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 5, 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028956.
    Haslam, N., Bain, P., Douge, L., Lee, M., & Bastian, B. (2005). More human than you: Attributing humanness to self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 937–950. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.937.
    Hermida, P. C. de Q., & Santos, E. M. d. (2023). Detecting hate speech in memes: A review. Artificial Intelligence Review, 56, 12833–12851. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10462-023-10459-7.
    Heumann, M., & Church, T. W. (1997). Hate speech on campus: Cases, case studies, and commentary. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
    Hietanen, M., & Eddebo, J. (2023). Towards a definition of hate speech – with a focus on online contexts. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 47, 343–500. https://doi.org/10.1177/01968599221124309.
    Hildebrand, L. K., Jusuf, C. C., & Monteith, M. J. (2020). Ally confrontations as identity-safety cues for marginalized individuals. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50, 1318–1333. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2692.
    Hodson, G., Rush, J., & Macinnis, C. C. (2010). A joke is just a joke (except when it isn’t): Cavalier humor beliefs facilitate the expression of group dominance motives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 660–682. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019627.
    Hopton, K., & Langer, S. (2021). “Kick the XX out of your life”: An analysis of the manosphere’s discursive constructions of gender on Twitter. Feminism & Psychology, 32, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/09593535211033461.
    Houston, D., M., & Andreopoulou, A. (2003). Tests of both corollaries of social identity theory’s self-esteem hypothesis in real group settings. British Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466603322438206.
    Hsieh, W., Faulkner, N., & Wickes, R. (2022). What reduces prejudice in the real world? A meta-analysis of prejudice reduction field experiments. British Journal of Social Psychology, 61, 689–710. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12509.
    Hsueh, M., Yogeeswaran, K., & Malinen, S. (2015). “Leave your comment below”: Can biased online comments influence our own prejudicial attitudes and behaviors? Human Communication Research, 41, 557–576. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12059.
    Huang, J. T., Krupenkin, M., Rothschild, D., & Cunningham, J. L. (2022). The cost of anti-Asian racism during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nature Human Behaviour, 7, 682–695. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01493-6.
    Hurd, N. M., Trawalter, S., Jakubow, A., Johnson, H. E., & Billingsley, J. T. (2022). Online racial discrimination and the role of White bystanders. American Psychologist, 77, 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000603.
    Huynh, V. W., Raval, V. V., & Freeman, M. (2022). Ethnic-racial discrimination toward Asian Americans amidst COVID-19, the so-called “China” virus and associations with mental health. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 13, 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000264.
    Inara Rodis, P. d. C. (2021). Let’s (re)tweet about racism and sexism: Responses to cyber aggression toward Black and Asian women. Information, Communication & Society, 24, 2153–2173. https://doi.org/10.1080/136118x.2021.1962948.
    International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. (1969). www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-convention-elimination-all-forms-racial.
    Jacob, G., Faber, S. C., Faber, N., et al. (2023). A systematic review of Black people coping with racism: Approaches, analysis, and empowerment. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18, 392–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221100509.
    Jacobs, L., & van Spanje, J. (2021). Martyrs for free speech? Disentangling the effects of legal prosecution of anti-immigration politicians on their electoral support. Political Behavior, 43, 973–996. https://doi.org/10/1007/s11109-019-09581-6.
    Jimenez, T., Arndt, J., & Landau, M. J. (2021). Walls block waves: Using an inundation metaphor of immigration predicts support for a border wall. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 9, 159–171. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.6383.
    Johnson, V. E., Nadal, K. L., Sissoko, D. R. G., & King, R. (2021). “It’s not in your head”: Gaslighting, splaining, victim blaming, and other harmful reactions to microaggressions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16, 1024–1036. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211011963.
    Joseph, R. L. (2011). Imagining Obama: Reading overtly and inferentially racist images of our 44th President, 2007–2008. Communication Studies, 62, 389–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2011.588074.
    Jung, C. W. (2023). Role of informal social control in predicting racist hate speech on online platforms: Collective efficacy and the theory of planned behavior. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 26, 507–518. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2022.0107.
    Kafka, A. (2023). Seeing through woke-washing: Effects of projected diversity values and leader racial diversity on equity in workplace outcomes. Consulting Psychology Journal, 75, 94–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/cpb0000237.
    Kamenetz, A., Lattimore, K., & Depenbrock, J. (2017, June). Harvard Rescinds Admission of 10 Students over Obscene Facebook Messages. www.npr.org/sections/ed/2017/06/06/531591202/harvard-rescinds-admission-of-10-students-over-obscene-facebook-messages.
    Kansok-Dusche, J., Ballaschk, C., Krause, N., et al. (2022). A systematic review on hate speech among children and adolescents: Definitions, prevalence, and overlap with related phenomena. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24, 2598–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221108070.
    Kendall, M. (November 16, 2016 ). 22 Times Michelle Obama Endured Rude, Racist, Sexist or Plain Ridiculous Attacks. www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/11/16/22-times-michelle-obama-endured-rude-racist-sexist-or-plain-dumb-attacks/.
    Kesebir, P., & Pyszczynski, T. (2011). A moral-existential account of psychological factors fostering intergroup conflict. Personality and Social Psychology Compass, 5, 878–890. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00397.x.
    Keum, B. T., & Hearns, M. (2022). Online gaming and racism: Impact on psychological distress among Black, Asian, and Latinx emerging adults. Games and Culture, 17, 445–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/15554120211039082.
    King, E. B., Hebl, M., Shapiro, J. R., et al. (2024). (Absent) allyship in STEM: Can psychological standing increase prejudice confrontation. Journal of Business and Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10869-023-09929-0.
    Kirkland, S. L., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1987). Further evidence of the deleterious effects of overheard derogatory ethnic labels: Derogation beyond the target. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 216–227. https://doi.org/10.1077/0146167287132007.
    Klein, A. (2010). A space for hate: The White power movement’s adaptation into cyberspace. Duluth, MN: Litwin.
    Kneale, D., & Bécares, L. (2023). The influence of a hostile environment on a syndemic of depression, stress and chronic limiting illness among LGBTQ+ people during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sociology of Health & Illness, 46, 114–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13689.
    Krahé, B., Möller, I., Huesmann, L. R., et al. (2011). Desensitization to media violence: Links with habitual media violence exposure, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 630–646. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021711.
    Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
    Lamb, L. M., Bigler, R. S., Liben, L. S., & Green, V. A. (2009). Teaching children to confront peers’ sexist remarks: Implications for theories of gender development and educational practice. Sex Roles, 61, 361–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9634-4.
    Lamont, M., Park, B. Y., & Ayala-Hurtado, E. (2017). Trump’s electoral speeches and his appeal to the American white working class. British Journal of Sociology, 68, 153–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12315.
    Landau, M. J., Meier, B. P., & Keefer, L. A. (2010). A metaphor-enriched social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1045–1067. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020970.
    Lee, I.-C., Pratto, F., & Johnson, B. T. (2011). Intergroup consensus/disagreement in support of group-based hierarchy: An examination of socio-structural and psycho-cultural factors. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 1029–1064. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025410.
    Leets, L. (2002). Experiencing hate speech: Perceptions and responses to anti-Semitism and antigay speech. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 341–361. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00264.
    Lee-Won, R. J., White, T. N., Song, H., Lee, J. Y., & Smith, M. R. (2020). Source magnification of cyberhate: Affective and cognitive effects of multiple-source hate messages on target members. Media Psychology, 23, 603–624. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2019.16112760.
    Leskinen, E. A., Rabelo, B. C., & Cortina, L. M. (2015). Gender stereotyping and harassment: A “Catch-22” for women in the workplace. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 21, 192–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000040.
    Levin, A. (2010). The cost of free speech: Pornography, hate speech, and their challenge to liberalism. England: Palgrave Macmillan.
    Linz, D. G., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 758–768. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.758.
    Lott, T. L. (1999). The invention of race: Black culture and the politics of representation. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
    Loughnan, S., Haslam, N., Sutton, R. M., & Spencer, B. (2014). Dehumanization and social class: Animality in the stereotypes of “white trash,” “chavs,” and “bogans.” Social Psychology, 45, 54–61. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/A000159.
    Maass, A., Salvi, D., Arcuri, L., & Semin, G. (1989). Language use in intergroup contexts: The linguistic intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 981–993. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.981.
    MacAvaney, S., Yao, H.-R., Yang, E., et al. (2019). Hate speech detection: Challenges and solutions. PLoS ONE, 14, e0221152. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221152.
    Malcolm, F. (2021). Silencing and freedom of speech in UK higher education. British Educational Research Journal, 47, 52–538. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3661.
    Martínez, C., van Prooijen, J.-W., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2022). A threat-based hate model: How symbolic and realistic threats underlie hate and aggression. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 103, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/JESP.2022.104393.
    Martinez, L. R., Hebl, M. R., Smith, N. A., & Sabat, I. E. (2017). Standing up and speaking out against prejudice toward gay men in the workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 103, 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2017.08.001.
    Mathew, B., Illendula, A., Saha, P., et al. (2020). Hate begets hate: A temporal study of hate speech. Proceedings of Association for Computing Machinery, 4, 92. 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1145/3415163.
    Matsuda, M. J., Lawrence, C. R., Delgado, R., & Crenshaw, K. W. (1993). Words that wound. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
    Matsumoto, D., Frank, M. G., & Hwang, H. C. (2015). The role of intergroup emotions in political violence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24, 369–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721415595023.
    Matsumoto, D., Hwang, H. C., & Frank, M. G. (2016). The effects of incidental anger, contempt, and disgust on hostile language and implicit behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 46, 437–452. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12374.
    Matsumoto, D., Hwang, H. C., & Frank, M. G. (2017). Emotion and aggressive intergroup cognitions: The ANCODI hypothesis. Aggressive Behavior, 43, 93–107. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21666.
    McGee, T., & Kruger, A. C. (2022). Racial microaggressions and African American undergraduates’ academic experiences: Preparation for bias messages as a protective resource. Journal of Black Psychology, 48, 726–775. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984211067628.
    McNamee, L. G., Peterson, B. L., & Peña, J. (2010). A call to education, participate, invoke, and indict: Understanding the communication of online hate groups. Communication Monographs, 77, 257–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751003758227.
    Mekawi, Y., & Todd, N. R. (2018). Okay to say?: Initial validation of the acceptability of racial microaggressions scale. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 24, 346–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/CDP0000201.
    Mendelsohn, J., Tsvetkov, Y., & Jurafsky, D. (2020). A framework for the computational linguistic analysis of dehumanization. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 3, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2020.00055.
    Merritt, S. K., O’Brien, L. T., & Ruscher, J. B. (2021). Creating clever internet memes perpetuates offensiveness. Western Journal of Communication, 85, 471–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2020.1800812.
    Moran, L. (2018). Fox News Host Tucker Carlson Says Immigration Is Making America “Dirtier.” www.huffpost.com/entry/tucker-carlson-immigrants-doing-to-america_n_5c136ca1e4b0f60cfa27dbaf.
    Moses, M. S. (2021). “Very fine people on both sides”: Diverse viewpoints, truth, and free speech on campus. Educational Studies, 57, 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131946.2021.1945608.
    Mozafari, M., Farahbakhsh, R., & Crespi, N. (2020). Hate speech detection and racial bias mitigation in social media based on BERT model. PLoS ONE, 15, e0237861. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237861.
    Mullen, B., & Johnson, C. (1993). Cognitive representation in ethnophaulisms as a function of group size: The phenomenology of being in a group. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 296–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167293193006.
    Mullen, B., & Smyth, J. M. (2004). Immigrant suicide rates as a function of ethnophaulisms: Hate speech predicts death. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66, 343–348. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000126197.59447.b3.
    Mulvey, K. L., Palmer, S. B., & Abrams, D. (2016). Race-based humor and peer group dynamics in adolescence: Bystander intervention and social exclusion. Child Development, 87, 1379–1391. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12600.
    Murphy, M. C., Richeson, J. A., Shelton, J. N., Rheinschmidt, M. L., & Bergsieker, H. B. (2012). Cognitive costs of contemporary prejudice. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 16 , 560–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430212468170.
    Musolff, A. (2007). What role do metaphors play in racial prejudice? The function of antisemitic imagery in Hitler’s Mein Kamp. Patterns of Prejudice, 1, 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313220601118744.
    Nature Human Behaviour Editorial (2018). The cooperative human. Nature Human Behaviour, 2, 427–428. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0389.
    Nelson, J. C., Adams, G., & Salter, P. S. (2012). The Marley hypothesis: Denial of racism reflects ignorance of history. Psychological Science, 24, 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612451466.
    Nelson, J. K., Dunn, K. M., & Paradies, Y. (2011). Bystander anti-racism: A review of the literature. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 11, 263–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2011.01274.x.
    Nielsen, L. B. (2002). Subtle, pervasive, harmful: Racist and sexist remarks in public as hate speech. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00260.
    Nisbett, R. E., Krantz, D. H., Jepson, C., & Kunda, Z. (1983). The use of statistical heuristics in everyday inductive reasoning. Psychological Review, 90, 339–363. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.90.4.339.
    Noor, M., Shnabel, N., Halabi, S., & Nadler, A. (2012). When suffering begets suffering: The psychology of competitive victimhood between adversarial groups in violent conflicts. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16, 351–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868312440048.
    Nugent, W. R., Abrams, T. E., & Joseph, A. A. (2022). The relationship between political rhetoric and mass shootings. Journal of Social Service Research, 48, 246–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2021.2018089.
    O’Brien, L. T., Blodorn, A., Alsbrooks, A., et al. (2009). Understanding White Americans’ perceptions of racism in Hurricane Katrina-related events. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 12, 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430209105047.
    O’Brien, L. T., & Merritt, S. (2022). Attributions to discrimination against Black victims in a multiracial society: Isolating the effect of perpetrator group membership. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 48, 120–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220988372.
    Oliva, T. D., Antonialli, D. M., & Gomes, A. (2021). Fighting hate speech, silencing drag queens? Artificial intelligence in content moderation and risks to LGBTQ voice online. Sexuality & Culture, 25, 700–732. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12119-020-09790-w.
    O’Neal, E. C., & Taylor, S. L. (1989). Status of the provoker, opportunity to retaliate, and interest in video violence. Aggressive Behavior, 15, 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2337(1989)15:2.
    Ong, A. D., Cerrada, C., Lee, R. A., & Williams, D. R. (2017). Stigma consciousness, racial microaggressions, and sleep disturbance among Asian Americans. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 8, 72–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000062.
    Onyeador, I. N., Hudson, S. T. J., & Lewis, N. A. (2021). Moving beyond implicit bias training: Policy insights for increasing organizational diversity. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8, 19–26. https://doi.org/10.117/2372732220983840.
    Orehek, E., & Weaverling, C. G. (2017). On the nature of objectification: Implications of considering people as means to goals. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 703–921. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617691138.
    Ortiz, S. M. (2019). “You can say I got desensitized to it”: How men of color cope with everyday racism in online gaming. Sociological Perspectives, 62, 572–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121419837588.
    Pabian, S., Vandebosch, H., Poels, K., Van Cleemput, K., & Bastiaensens, S. (2016). Exposure to cyberbullying as a bystander: An investigation of desensitization effects among early adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 480–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.chb.2016.04.022.
    Panaitiu, I. G. (2020). Apes and anticitizens: Simianization and U.S. national identity discourse. Social Identities, 26, 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2019.1679621.
    Parker, L. R., Monteith, M. J., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Van Camp, A. R. (2018). Promoting concern about gender bias with evidence-based confrontation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 74, 8–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.07.009.
    Paterson, J. L., Brown, R., & Walters, M. (2019). The short and longer term impacts of hate crimes experienced directly, indirectly, and through the media. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45, 994–1010. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218802835.
    Payne, B. K., & Correll, J. (2020). Race, weapons, and the perception of threat. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 62, 1–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2020.04.001.
    Peirce, K., & McBride, M. (1999). Aunt Jemima isn’t keeping up with the energizer bunny: Stereotyping of animated spokescharacters in advertising. Sex Roles, 40, 959–968. https://doi.org/1023/A.1018833423803.
    Pettersson, K. (2019). “Freedom of speech requires actions”: Exploring the discourse of politicians convicted of hate-speech against Muslims. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 938–952. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2577.
    Pew Research Center (2013). A Survey of LGBT Americans. www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/06/13/a-survey-of-lgbt-americans/.
    Research Center, Pew (2016). Americans More Tolerant of Offensive Speech than Others in the World. www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/10/12/americans-more-tolerant-of-offensive-speech-than-others-in-the-world/.
    Research Center, Pew (2022). Alternative Social Media Sites Frequently Identify as Free Speech Advocates. www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2022/10/06/alternative-social-media-sites-frequently-identify-as-free-speech-advocates/.
    Pew Research Center (2024). Social Media Fact Sheet. www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/social-media/.
    Pieterse, A. L., Todd, N. R., Neville, H. A., & Carter, R. T. (2012). Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026208.
    Pluta, A., Mazurek, J., Wojciechowski, J., et al. (2023). Exposure to hate speech deteriorates neurocognitive mechanisms of the ability to understand others’ pain. Scientific Reports, 13, 4127. https://doi.org/10.1038/S41598-023-31146-1.
    Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L., & Malle, B. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741.
    Priesemuth, M., & Schminke, M. (2024). Toxic work climates: An integrative review and development of a new construct and theoretical framework. Journal of Applied Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0001188.
    Pyszczynski, T., Abdollahi, A., Solomon, S., et al. (2006). Mortality salience, martyrdom, and military might: The Great Satan versus the Axis of Evil. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 525–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205282157.
    Quillian, L. (1995). Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat: Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe. American Sociological Review, 60, 586–611. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096296.
    Racial and Religious Hatred Act of 2006, United Kingdom (2006). www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/1.
    Ragland, K. P., & Sommers, S. A. (2024). Can I see myself there? How Black potential applicants use diversity cues to learn about graduate program culture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001571.
    Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2010). Who confronts prejudice? The role of implicit theories in the motivation to confront prejudice. Psychological Science, 21, 952–959. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610374740.
    Reyna, C., Bellovary, A., & Harris, K. (2022). The psychology of White nationalism: Ambivalence toward a changing America. Social Issues and Policy Review, 16, 79–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12081.
    Rice, D. R., Abrams, D., Badea, C., et al. (2010). What did you just call me? European and American ratings of the valence of ethnophaulisms. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 29, 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X09351696.
    Riek, B. M., Mania, E. W., & Gaertner, S. L. (2006). Intergroup threat and outgroup attitudes: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1207.s15327957pspr1004_4.
    Rosette, A. S., Carton, A. M., Bowes-Sperry, L., & Hewlin, P. F. (2013). Why do racial slurs remain prevalent in the workplace? Integrating theory on intergroup behavior. Organization Science, 24, 1402–1421. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1120.0809.
    Rothbart, M., & Park, B. (1986). On the confirmability and disconfirmability of trait concepts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.1.131.
    Roussos, G., & Dovidio, J. F. (2018). Hate speech is in the eye of the beholder: The influence of racial attitudes and freedom of speech beliefs on perceptions of racially motivated threats of violence. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9, 176–185. https://doi.org/10.117/1948550617748728.
    Roussos, G., & Dovidio, J. F. (2019). Enhancing the salience of free speech rights increases differential perceived free speech protections for criminal acts against Black versus White targets. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 49, 519–533. https://doi.org/10.1111/JAPS.12601.
    Rubino, C., Avery, D. R., McKay, P. F., et al. (2018). And justice for all: How organizational justice climate deters sexual harassment. Personnel Psychology, 71, 519–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12274.
    Ruscher, J. B. (2001). Prejudiced communication. New York: Guilford Press.
    Saleh, H., Alhothali, A., & Moria, K. (2023). Detection of hate speech using BERT and hate speech word embedding with deep model. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 37, e216671910. https://doi.org/1080.08839514.2023.2166719.
    Santos, F. P., Lelkes, Y., & Levin, S. A. (2021). Link recommendation algorithms and dynamics of polarization in online social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118, e2102141118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2102141118.
    Sarrasin, O., Green, E. G. T., Fasel, N., et al. (2012). Opposition to antiracism laws across Swiss municipalities: A multi-level analysis. Political Psychology, 33, 659–681. https://doi.org/1.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00895.x.
    Schaeffer, K., & Edwards, K. (2022). Black Americans differ from other U.S. adults over whether individual or structural racism is a bigger problem. Pew Research Center. https://pewrsr.ch/3EvOYgv.
    Schell, C. J., Dyson, K., Fuentes, T. L., et al. (2020). The ecological and evolutionary consequences of systemic racism in urban environments. Science, 369(6510). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay4497.
    Schmuck, D., & Matthes, J. (2017). Effects of economic and symbolic threat appeals in right-wing populist advertising on anti-immigrant attitudes: The impact of textual and visual appeals. Political Communication, 34, 607–626. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2017.1316807.
    Schnake, S. B., & Ruscher, J. B. (1998). Modern racism as a predictor of the linguistic intergroup bias. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 17, 486–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927x980174004.
    Schneider, K. T., Hitlan, R. T., & Radhakrishnan, P. (2000). An examination of the nature and correlates of ethnic harassment experiences in multiple contexts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.3.
    Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the U.S. Capitol (June 1, 2022). Interview of Wandrea Arshaye Moss. www.fox5atlanta.com/news/jan-6th-committee-releases-full-testimony-of-fulton-county-election-workers).
    Sharrow, E. A., Tarsi, M. R., & Nteta, T. M. (2021). What’s in a name? Symbolic racism, public opinion, and the controversy over the NFL’s Washington football team name. Race and Social Problems, 13, 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-020-09305-0.
    Shen, W., Lam, J., Varty, C. T., Krstic, A., & Hideg, I. (2024). Diversity climate affords unequal protection against incivility among Asian workers: The COVID-19 pandemic as a racial mega-threat. Applied Psychology, 73, 34–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12462.
    Simon, L., & Greenberg, J. (1996). Further progress in understanding the effects of derogatory ethnic labels: The role of preexisting attitudes toward the targeted group. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1195–1204. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672962212001.
    Simonton, T. (2018). U. of Washington Settles Campus Republications’ Free Speech Lawsuit for $127,000. www.chronicle.com/article/U-of-Washington-Settles/243704.
    Sittenthaler, S., Steindl, C., & Jonas, E. (2015). Legitimate vs. illegitimate restrictions – A motivational and physiological approach investigating reactance processes. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 632. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00632.
    Smith, L. G. E., & Postmes, T. (2011). The power of talk: Developing discriminatory group norms through discussion. British Journal of Social Psychology, 50, 193–215. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466610x504805.
    Sohoni, D., & Sohoni, T. W. (2014). Perceptions of immigrant criminality: Crime and social boundaries. The Sociological Quarterly, 55, 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/tsq.12039.
    Soral, W., Bilewicz, M., & Winiewski, M. (2018). Exposure to hate speech increases prejudice through desensitization. Aggressive Behavior, 77, 136–146. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21737.
    Soral, W., Malinowska, K., & Bilewicz, M. (2022). The role of empathy in reducing hate speech proliferation: Two contact-based interventions in online and off-line settings. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 28, 361–371. https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000602.
    Spender, D. (1980). Man made language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
    Stanford, K. L. (2011). Keepin’ it real in hip hop politics: A political perspective of Tupac Shakur. Journal of Black Studies, 42, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934709355122.
    Stanley, J. (1973). Paradigmatic Woman: The Prostitute. Presented at the South Atlantic Modern Language Association.
    Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In Oskamp, S. (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 23–45). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
    Stephan, W. G., Ybarra, O., & Rios, K. (2015). Intergroup threat theory. In Nelson, T. D. (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (2nd ed., pp. 255–278). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
    Sue, D. W., Alsaidi, S., Awad, M. N., et al. (2019). Disarming racial microaggressions: Microintervention strategies for targets, white allies, and bystanders. American Psychologist, 74, 128–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000296.
    Swim, J., & Hyers, L. L. (1999). Excuse me-what did you just say?!: Women’s public and responses to sexist remarks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 68–88. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1370.
    Szymanski, D. M., & Lewis, J. A. (2015). Race-related stress and racial identity as predictors of African American activism. Journal of Black Psychology, 41, 170–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414520707.
    Szymanski, D. M., Mikorski, R., & Dunn, T. L. (2019). Predictors of sexual minority men’s sexual objectification of other men. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36, 3631–3650. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519832669.
    Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Worchel, S. & Austin, W. G. (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
    Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C. E., Louis, W. R., & Goddard, A. (2017). Collective self-determination: How the agent of help promotes pride, well-being, and support for intergroup helping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43, 662–677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217695553.
    Thompson, A. I., & Busby, E. C. (2023). Defending the dog whistle: The role of justifications in racial messaging. Political Behavior, 45, 1241–1262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-021-09759-x.
    Tileagă, C.(2007). Ideologies of moral exclusion: A critical discursive reframing of depersonalization, delegitimization, and dehumanization. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 717–737. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466607X186894.
    Tipler, C. T. (2016). They’re sucking the system dry: Mediators and moderators of the relationship between dehumanizing metaphors for immigrants and anti-immigrant public policy attitudes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Tulane University.
    Tipler, C. N., & Ruscher, J. B. (2014). Agency’s role in dehumanization: Non-human metaphors of outgroups. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8, 214–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12100.
    Tipler, C. N., & Ruscher, J. B. (2019). Dehumanizing representations of women: The shaping of hostile sexist attitudes through animalistic metaphors. Journal of Gender Studies, 28, 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1411790.
    Tontodimamma, A., Nissi, E., Sarra, A., & Fontanella, L. (2021). Thirty years of research into hate speech: Topics of interests and their evolution. Scientometrics, 126, 157–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03737-6.
    Turner, J. C., & Oakes, P. J. (1989). Self-categorization theory and social influence. In Paulus, P. B. (Eds.), The psychology of group influence (pp. 233–275). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
    Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., Finkelhor, D., & Hamby, S. (2016). Polyvictimization and youth violence exposure across contexts. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58, 208–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.09.021.
    United Nations General Assembly (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2021/03/udhr.pdf.
    Valencia, N. (July, 2022). Mississippi Police Chief Fired after Audio of Slurs Surfaces. www.cnn.com/2022/07/23/us/mississippi-police-chief-fired/index.html.
    Van Assche, J., Swart, H., Schmid, K., et al. (2023). Intergroup contact is reliably associated with reduced prejudice, even in the face of group threat and discrimination. American Psychologist, 78, 761–774. https://doi.org/10.1037/ampP0001144.
    Van Noorloos, M. (2013). The politicization of hate speech bans in the twenty-first century Netherlands: Law in a changing context. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 40, 249–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2013.851474.
    Wahlström, M., Törnberg, A., & Ekbrand, H. (2020). Dynamics of violent and dehumanizing rhetoric in far-right social media. New Media & Society, 23, 3290–3311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820952795.
    Wang, S., & Kim, K. J. (2023). Content moderation on social media: Does it matter who and why moderates hate speech? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 26, 527–534. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2022.0158.
    Weinstein, M., Jensen, M. R., & Tynes, B. M. (2021). Victimized in many ways: Online and offline bullying/harassment and perceived racial discrimination in diverse racial-ethnic minority adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27, 397–407. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000436.
    Wesselmann, E. D., & Kelly, J. R. (2010). Cat-calls and culpability: Investigating the frequency and functions of stranger harassment. Sex Roles, 63, 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9830-2.
    White, M. H., & Crandall, C. S. (2017). Freedom of racist speech: Ego and expressive threats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113, 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/PSPI0000095.
    Wiggins, B. E., & Bowers, G. B. (2014). Memes as genre: A structurational analysis of the memescape. New Media and Society, 17, 1886–1906. https://doi.org/10.117/1461444814535194.
    Williams, B. (2005). NCAA Executive Committee Issues Guidelines for Use of Native American Mascots at Championship Events. fs.ncaa.org/Docs/PressArchive/2005/Announcements/index.html.
    Wilson, J. Z. (2014). Ambient hate: Racist graffiti and social apathy in a rural community. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 53, 377–394. https://doi.org/10.1111/hojo.12076.
    Woods, F. A., & Ruscher, J. B. (2021a). “calling-out” vs. “calling-in” prejudice: Confrontation style affects inferred motive and expected outcomes. British Journal of Social Psychology, 60, 50–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12405.
    Woods, F. A., & Ruscher, J. B. (2021b). Viral sticks, virtual stones: Addressing anonymous hate speech online. Patterns of Prejudice, 55, 265–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2021.1968586.
    Woods, F. A., & Ruscher, J. B. (2024). What’s in a name … and for whom? How public spaces named for prejudiced individuals impact targets of prejudice. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 27, 663–688. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302231184371.
    Woolfson, P. (1991). Aspects of non-verbal accommodation to language in a bilingual Montreal hospital setting. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 1, 1055–1360. https://doi.org/10.1525/jlin.1991.1.2.178.
    Wright, C., Brinklow-Vaughn, R., Johannes, K., & Rodriguez, F. (2021). Media portrayals of immigration and refugees in hard and fake news and their impact on consumer attitudes. Howard Journal of Communications, 32, 331–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2020.1810180.
    Wright, M. F., Wachs, S., Yanagida, T., et al. (2021). Associations between severity and attributions: Differences for public and private face-to-face and cyber victimization. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 46, 843–891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09660-7.
    Wypych, M., & Bilewicz, M. (2024). Psychological toll of hate speech: The role of acculturation stress in the effects of exposure to ethnic slurs on mental health among Ukrainian immigrants in Poland. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 30, 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000522.
    Zillman, D. (1999). Exemplification theory: Judging the whole by some of its parts. Media Psychology, 1, 69–94. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532785xmep0101_5.
    Zimmer, B. (2018). “Wop” Doesn’t Mean What Andrew Cuomo Thinks It Means. The Atlantic. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/04/wop-doesnt-mean-what-andrew-cuomo-thinks-it-means/558659/.

    Metrics

    Altmetric attention score

    Full text views

    Total number of HTML views: 0
    Total number of PDF views: 0 *
    Loading metrics...

    Book summary page views

    Total views: 0 *
    Loading metrics...

    * Views captured on Cambridge Core between #date#. This data will be updated every 24 hours.

    Usage data cannot currently be displayed.

    Accessibility standard: Unknown

    Why this information is here

    This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

    Accessibility Information

    Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this book is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.