References
Ader, R (2000) On the development of psychoneuroimmunology. Eur J Pharmacol 405:167–176
Ader, R (1981) Psychoneuroimmunology. Academic Press, New York
Ader, R, Cohen, N (1985) High time for psychoimmunology. Nature 315:103–104. doi:10.1038/315103b0
Afik, R, Zigmond, E, Vugman, M, et al. (2016) Tumor macrophages are pivotal constructors of tumor collagenous matrix. Journal of Experimental Medicine 213:2315–2331. doi:10.1084/jem.20151193
Aktipis, CA, Boddy, AM, Jansen, G, et al. (2015) Cancer across the tree of life: cooperation and cheating in multicellularity. Phil Trans R Soc B 370:20140219. doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0219
Anderson, RM, May, RM (1982) Coevolution of hosts and parasites. Parasitology 85 (Pt 2):411–426
Anderson, W, Mackay, IR (2014) Fashioning the immunological self: the biological individuality of F. Macfarlane Burnet. J Hist Biol 47:147–175. doi:10.1007/s10739-013-9352-1
Anderton, SM, Wraith, DC (2002) Selection and fine-tuning of the autoimmune T-cell repertoire. Nat Rev Immunol 2:487–498. doi:10.1038/nri842
Augustin, R, Fraune, S, Bosch, TCG (2010) How Hydra senses and destroys microbes. Semin Immunol 22:54–58. doi:10.1016/j.smim.2009.11.002
Ayuso-Mateos, JL, Vázquez-Barquero, JL, Dowrick, C, et al. (2001) Depressive disorders in Europe: prevalence figures from the ODIN study. The British Journal of Psychiatry 179:308–316. doi:10.1192/bjp.179.4.308
Bach, J-F (2002) The effect of infections on susceptibility to autoimmune and allergic diseases. N Engl J Med 347:911–920. doi:10.1056/NEJMra020100
Bazin, H (2011) Vaccination: a history from Lady Montagu to genetic engineering. John Libbey Eurotext, Montrouge
Belkaid, Y, Harrison, OJ (2017) Homeostatic immunity and the microbiota. Immunity 46:562–576. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2017.04.008
Bertolaso, M (2016) Philosophy of Cancer: A Dynamic and Relational View. Springer, Netherlands
Besedovsky, H, Sorkin, E (1977) Network of immune-neuroendocrine interactions. Clin Exp Immunol 27:1–12
Besedovsky, HO, Rey, AD (2007) Physiology of psychoneuroimmunology: a personal view. Brain Behav Immun 21:34–44. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2006.09.008
Billingham, RE, Brent, L, Medawar, PB (1953) Actively acquired tolerance of foreign cells. Nature 172:603–606. doi:10.1038/172603a0
Binnewies, M, Roberts, EW, Kersten, K, et al. (2018) Understanding the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) for effective therapy. Nat Med 24:541–550. doi:10.1038/s41591-018-0014-x
Bissell, MJ, Hines, WC (2011) Why don’t we get more cancer? A proposed role of the microenvironment in restraining cancer progression. Nat Med 17:320–329. doi:10.1038/nm.2328
Bissell, MJ, Radisky, D (2001) Putting tumours in context. Nat Rev Cancer 1:46–54. doi:10.1038/35094059
Bosch, TCG, McFall-Ngai, MJ (2011) Metaorganisms as the new frontier. Zoology (Jena) 114:185–190. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2011.04.001
Bouchard, F (2010) Symbiosis, lateral function transfer and the (many) saplings of life. Biol Philos 25:623–641. doi:10.1007/s10539-010-9209-3
Bretscher, P, Cohn, M (1970) A theory of self-nonself discrimination. Science 169:1042–1049
Bullmore, E (2018) The Inflamed Mind: A Radical New Approach to Depression. Short Books, London
Burnet, FM (1940) Biological Aspects of Infectious Disease. Macmillan, New York
Burnet, FM (1969) Cellular Immunology: Self and Notself. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Burnet, FM (1962) The Integrity of the Body: A Discussion of Modern Immunological Ideas. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
Burnet, FM (1960) Immunological recognition of self. Nobel Lectures in Physiology or Medicine 3:689–701
Burnet, FM (1959) The Clonal Selection Theory of Acquired Immunity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Burnet, FM (1957) Cancer: a biological approach. British Medical Journal 1:1–7
Burnet, FM (1970) Immunological Surveillance. Pergamon, Oxford
Burnet, FM, Fenner, F (1949) The Production of Antibodies, 2nd ed. Macmillan, Melbourne
Buss, LW (1999) Slime molds, ascidians, and the utility of evolutionary theory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:8801–8803
Buss, LW (1987) The Evolution of Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Camacho-Arroyo, I, López-Griego, L, Morales-Montor, J (2009) The role of cytokines in the regulation of neurotransmission. Neuroimmunomodulation 16:1–12. doi:10.1159/000179661
Cann, SAH, Netten, JP van, Netten, C van (2003) Dr William Coley and tumour regression: a place in history or in the future. Postgraduate Medical Journal 79:672–680
Carosella, ED, Pradeu, T (2006) Transplantation and identity: a dangerous split? Lancet 368:183–184. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68938-1
Carson, MJ, Doose, JM, Melchior, B, et al. (2006) CNS immune privilege: hiding in plain sight. Immunol Rev 213:48–65. doi:10.1111/j.1600-065X.2006.00441.x
Casadevall, A, Pirofski, L (1999) Host-pathogen interactions: redefining the basic concepts of virulence and pathogenicity. Infect Immun 67:3703–3713
Chavan, SS, Pavlov, VA, Tracey, KJ (2017) Mechanisms and therapeutic relevance of neuro-immune communication. Immunity 46:927–942. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2017.06.008
Chavan, SS, Tracey, KJ (2017) Essential neuroscience in immunology. J Immunol 198:3389–3397. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1601613
Chen, C, Itakura, E, Nelson, GM, et al. (2017) IL-17 is a neuromodulator of Caenorhabditis elegans sensory responses. Nature 542:43–48. doi:10.1038/nature20818
Chen, DS, Mellman, I (2017) Elements of cancer immunity and the cancer-immune set point. Nature 541:321–330. doi:10.1038/nature21349
Chen, G, Zhuchenko, O, Kuspa, A (2007) Immune-like phagocyte activity in the social amoeba. Science 317:678–681. doi:10.1126/science.1143991
Chen, YE, Fischbach, MA, Belkaid, Y (2018) Skin microbiota-host interactions. Nature 553:427–436. doi:10.1038/nature25177
Chiu, L, Bazin, T, Truchetet, M-E, et al. (2017) Protective microbiota: from localized to long-reaching co-immunity. Front Immunol 8:. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01678
Chow, J, Tang, H, Mazmanian, SK (2011) Pathobionts of the gastrointestinal microbiota and inflammatory disease. Current Opinion in Immunology 23:473–480. doi:10.1016/j.coi.2011.07.010
Chu, H, Mazmanian, SK (2013) Innate immune recognition of the microbiota promotes host-microbial symbiosis. Nat Immunol 14:668–675. doi:10.1038/ni.2635
Clarke, E (2011) The problem of biological individuality. Biological Theory 5:312–325
Cohen, IR (2000) Tending Adam’s Garden: Evolving the Cognitive Immune Self. Academic Press, San Diego
Cohen, N (2006) The uses and abuses of psychoneuroimmunology: A global overview. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 20:99–112. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2005.09.008
Coley, WB (1893) The treatment of malignant tumours by repeated inoculations of erysipelas with a report of ten original cases. Am J Med Sci 105:487–511
Craig, AD (2002) How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3:655–666. doi:10.1038/nrn894
Cremer, S, Armitage, SAO, Schmid-Hempel, P (2007) Social immunity. Curr Biol 17:R693–702. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.06.008
Cummins, R (1975) Functional Analysis. The Journal of Philosophy 72:741–765. doi:10.2307/2024640
da Costa, LF (2001) Return of de-differentiation: why cancer is a developmental disease. Curr Opin Oncol 13:58–62
Dantzer, R (2018) Neuroimmune interactions: From the brain to the immune system and vice versa. Physiol Rev 98:477–504. doi:10.1152/physrev.00039.2016
Dantzer, R, O’Connor, JC, Freund, GG, et al. (2008) From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci 9:46–56. doi:10.1038/nrn2297
De Tomaso, AW, Nyholm, SV, Palmeri, KJ, et al. (2005) Isolation and characterization of a protochordate histocompatibility locus. Nature 438:454–459. doi:10.1038/nature04150
de Visser, KE, Eichten, A, Coussens, LM (2006) Paradoxical roles of the immune system during cancer development. Nat Rev Cancer 6:24–37. doi:10.1038/nrc1782
Dendrou, CA, Fugger, L, Friese, MA (2015) Immunopathology of multiple sclerosis. Nature Reviews Immunology 15:545–558. doi:10.1038/nri3871
Derecki, NC, Cardani, AN, Yang, CH, et al. (2010) Regulation of learning and memory by meningeal immunity: a key role for IL-4. J Exp Med 207:1067–1080. doi:10.1084/jem.20091419
Dolberg, DS, Hollingsworth, R, Hertle, M, Bissell, MJ (1985) Wounding and its role in RSV-mediated tumor formation. Science 230:676–678
Donaldson, GP, Ladinsky, MS, Yu, KB, et al. (2018) Gut microbiota utilize immunoglobulin A for mucosal colonization. Science 360:795–800. doi:10.1126/science.aaq0926
Donaldson, GP, Lee, SM, Mazmanian, SK (2016) Gut biogeography of the bacterial microbiota. Nat Rev Micro 14:20–32. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3552
Doron, S, Melamed, S, Ofir, G, et al. (2018) Systematic discovery of antiphage defense systems in the microbial pangenome. Science eaar4120. doi:10.1126/science.aar4120
Dubernard, J-M, Owen, E, Herzberg, G, et al. (1999) Human hand allograft: report on first 6 months. The Lancet 353:1315–1320. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)02062-0
Dubernard, JM, Owen, ER, Lanzetta, M, Hakim, N (2001) What is happening with hand transplants? The Lancet 357:1711–1712. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04846-7
Dunn, GP, Bruce, AT, Ikeda, H, et al. (2002) Cancer immunoediting: from immunosurveillance to tumor escape. Nat Immunol 3:991–998. doi:10.1038/ni1102-991
Dupré, J (2010) The polygenomic organism. The Sociological Review 58:19–31. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954X.2010.01909.x
Dustin, ML, Colman, DR (2002) Neural and immunological synaptic relations. Science 298:785–789. doi:10.1126/science.1076386
Dvorak, HF (1986) Tumors: wounds that do not heal. Similarities between tumor stroma generation and wound healing. N Engl J Med 315:1650–1659. doi:10.1056/NEJM198612253152606
Dvorak, HF (2015) Tumors: Wounds that do not heal – Redux. Cancer Immunol Res 3:1–11. doi:10.1158/2326-6066.CIR-14-0209
Eberl, G (2010) A new vision of immunity: homeostasis of the superorganism. Mucosal Immunology 3:450–460. doi:10.1038/mi.2010.20
Eberl, G (2016) Immunity by equilibrium. Nat Rev Immunol 16:524–532. doi:10.1038/nri.2016.75
Egeblad, M, Nakasone, ES, Werb, Z (2010) Tumors as organs: complex tissues that interface with the entire organism. Dev Cell 18:884–901. doi:10.1016/j.devcel.2010.05.012
Ehrlich, P (1909) Ueber den jetzigen Stand der Karzinomforschung. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde 5:273–290
Eming, SA, Martin, P, Tomic-Canic, M (2014) Wound repair and regeneration: mechanisms, signaling, and translation. Sci Transl Med 6:265sr6. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3009337
Eom, DS, Parichy, DM (2017) A macrophage relay for long-distance signaling during postembryonic tissue remodeling. Science 355:1317–1320. doi:10.1126/science.aal2745
Fernández-Sánchez, ME, Barbier, S, Whitehead, J, et al. (2015) Mechanical induction of the tumorigenic β-catenin pathway by tumour growth pressure. Nature 523:92–95. doi:10.1038/nature14329
Filiano, AJ, Xu, Y, Tustison, NJ, et al. (2016) Unexpected role of interferon-γ in regulating neuronal connectivity and social behaviour. Nature 535:425–429. doi:10.1038/nature18626
Finlay, BB, McFadden, G (2006) Anti-immunology: Evasion of the host immune system by bacterial and viral pathogens. Cell 124:767–782. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.01.034
Fisher, R, Pusztai, L, Swanton, C (2013) Cancer heterogeneity: implications for targeted therapeutics. British Journal of Cancer 108:479–485. doi:10.1038/bjc.2012.581
Flajnik, MF, Du Pasquier, L (2004) Evolution of innate and adaptive immunity: can we draw a line? Trends in Immunology 25:640–644
Folkman, J, Kalluri, R (2004) Cancer without disease. Nature 427:787. doi:10.1038/427787a
Frank, SA (2007) Dynamics of Cancer: Incidence, Inheritance, and Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Fridlender, ZG, Sun, J, Kim, S, et al. (2009) Polarization of tumor-associated neutrophil phenotype by TGF-beta: “N1” versus “N2” TAN. Cancer Cell 16:183–194. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2009.06.017
Fulton, RB, Hamilton, SE, Xing, Y, et al. (2015) The TCR’s sensitivity to self peptide-MHC dictates the ability of naive CD8+ T cells to respond to foreign antigens. Nat Immunol 16:107–117. doi:10.1038/ni.3043
Fung, TC, Olson, CA, Hsiao, EY (2017) Interactions between the microbiota, immune and nervous systems in health and disease. Nat Neurosci 20:145–155. doi:10.1038/nn.4476
Galluzzi, L, Senovilla, L, Zitvogel, L, Kroemer, G (2012) The secret ally: immunostimulation by anticancer drugs. Nat Rev Drug Discov 11:215–233. doi:10.1038/nrd3626
Galon, J, Costes, A, Sanchez-Cabo, F, et al. (2006) Type, Density, and Location of Immune Cells Within Human Colorectal Tumors Predict Clinical Outcome. Science 313:1960–1964. doi:10.1126/science.1129139
Germain, P-L (2012) Cancer cells and adaptive explanations. Biol Philos 27:785–810. doi:10.1007/s10539-012-9334-2
Gilbert, SF (2002) The genome in its ecological context: philosophical perspectives on interspecies epigenesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 981:202–218
Gilbert, SF, Sapp, J, Tauber, AI (2012) A symbiotic view of life: we have never been individuals. Q Rev Biol 87:325–341
Gill, SR, Pop, M, DeBoy, RT, et al. (2006) Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome. Science 312:1355–1359. doi:10.1126/science.1124234
Godfrey-Smith, P (2009) Darwinian Populations and Natural Selection. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Godfrey-Smith, P (2016) Other Minds: The Octopus, the Sea, and the Deep Origins of Consciousness, First edition. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York
Goodnow, CC, Sprent, J, de St Groth, BF, Vinuesa, CG (2005) Cellular and genetic mechanisms of self tolerance and autoimmunity. Nature 435:590–597. doi:10.1038/nature03724
Gordon, S (2003) Alternative activation of macrophages. Nat Rev Immunol 3:23–35. doi:10.1038/nri978
Goubau, D, Deddouche, S, Sousa C, Reis e (2013) Cytosolic sensing of viruses. Immunity 38:855–869. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2013.05.007
Greaves, M (2007) Darwinian medicine: a case for cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 7:213–221. doi:10.1038/nrc2071
Greaves, M, Maley, CC (2012) Clonal evolution in cancer. Nature 481:306–313. doi:10.1038/nature10762
Grossman, Z, Paul, WE (1992) Adaptive cellular interactions in the immune system: the tunable activation threshold and the significance of subthreshold responses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 89:10365–10369
Guay, A, Pradeu, T (2016) Individuals Across the Sciences. Oxford University Press, New York
Gurtner, GC, Werner, S, Barrandon, Y, Longaker, MT (2008) Wound repair and regeneration. Nature 453:314–321. doi:10.1038/nature07039
Haber, MH (2016) The individuality thesis (3 ways). Biol Philos 31:913–930. doi:10.1007/s10539-016-9548-9
Hanahan, D, Weinberg, RA (2011) Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144:646–674. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013
Hanahan, D, Weinberg, RA (2000) The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100:57–70. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81683-9
Hansson, GK, Hermansson, A (2011) The immune system in atherosclerosis. Nature Immunology 12:204–212. doi:10.1038/ni.2001
Hardcastle, VG (1997) When a pain is not. Journal of Philosophy 94:381–409
Hartung, HP, Toyka, KV (1983) Activation of macrophages by substance P: induction of oxidative burst and thromboxane release. Eur J Pharmacol 89:301–305
Haslam, A, Prasad, V (2019) Estimation of the percentage of US patients with cancer who are eligible for and respond to checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy drugs. JAMA Netw Open 2:e192535–e192535. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.2535
Heneka, MT, Kummer, MP, Latz, E (2014) Innate immune activation in neurodegenerative disease. Nature Reviews Immunology 14:463–477. doi:10.1038/nri3705
Heppner, FL, Ransohoff, RM, Becher, B (2015) Immune attack: the role of inflammation in Alzheimer disease. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 16:358–372. doi:10.1038/nrn3880
Hille, F, Richter, H, Wong, SP, et al. (2018) The biology of CRISPR-Cas: Backward and forward. Cell 172:1239–1259. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2017.11.032
Hodi, FS, O’Day, SJ, McDermott, DF, et al. (2010) Improved survival with Ipilimumab in patients with metastatic melanoma. New England Journal of Medicine 363:711–723. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1003466
Hogquist, KA, Jameson, SC (2014) The self-obsession of T cells: how TCR signaling thresholds affect fate “decisions” and effector function. Nature Immunology 15:815–823. doi:10.1038/ni.2938
Hooper, LV, Gordon, JI (2001) Commensal host-bacterial relationships in the gut. Science 292:1115–1118
Horvath, P, Barrangou, R (2010) CRISPR/Cas, the immune system of bacteria and Archaea. Science 327:167–170. doi:10.1126/science.1179555
Houghton, AN (1994) Cancer antigens: immune recognition of self and altered self. The Journal of Experimental Medicine 180:1–4. doi:10.1084/jem.180.1.1
Huang, S, Ernberg, I, Kauffman, S (2009) Cancer attractors: A systems view of tumors from a gene network dynamics and developmental perspective. Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 20:869–876. doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2009.07.003
Hull, D (1992) Individual. In: Keller, EF, Lloyd, EA (eds.) Keywords in Evolutionary Biology. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 181–187
Hull, D (1980) Individuality and selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11:311–332. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.11.110180.001523
Hull, DL (1978) A matter of individuality. Philosophy of Science 45:335–360
Huneman, P (2014) Individuality as a theoretical scheme. II. About the weak individuality of organisms and ecosystems. Biol Theory 9:374–381. doi:10.1007/s13752-014-0193-8
Jackson, SA, McKenzie, RE, Fagerlund, RD, et al. (2017) CRISPR-Cas: Adapting to change. Science 356:eaal5056. doi:10.1126/science.aal5056
Jain, RK (2005) Normalization of tumor vasculature: an emerging concept in antiangiogenic therapy. Science 307:58–62. doi:10.1126/science.1104819
Janeway, CA (1989) Approaching the asymptote? Evolution and revolution in immunology. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol:1–13
Janeway, CA (2001) How the immune system protects the host from infection. Microbes Infect 3:1167–1171
Janeway, CA (1992) The immune system evolved to discriminate infectious nonself from noninfectious self. Immunology Today 13:11–16. doi:10.1016/0167-5699(92)90198-G
Jerne, NK (1985) The generative grammar of the immune system. EMBO J 4:847–852
Jiang, H, Chess, L (2009) How the immune system achieves self-nonself discrimination during adaptive immunity. Adv Immunol 102:95–133. doi:10.1016/S0065-2776(09)01202-4
Jones, B, Shipley, E, Arnold, KE (2018) Social immunity in honeybees – Density dependence, diet, and body mass trade‐offs. Ecol Evol 8:4852–4859. doi:10.1002/ece3.4011
Jones, JDG, Dangl, JL (2006) The plant immune system. Nature 444:323–329. doi:10.1038/nature05286
Joyce, JA (2005) Therapeutic targeting of the tumor microenvironment. Cancer Cell 7:513–520. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2005.05.024
Joyce, JA, Fearon, DT (2015) T cell exclusion, immune privilege, and the tumor microenvironment. Science 348:74–80. doi:10.1126/science.aaa6204
June, CH, Sadelain, M (2018) Chimeric antigen receptor therapy. N Engl J Med 379:64–73. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1706169
Kahan, BD (2003) Individuality: the barrier to optimal immunosuppression. Nature Reviews Immunology 3:831–838. doi:10.1038/nri1204
Keijzer, F, Duijn M van, Lyon, P (2013) What nervous systems do: early evolution, input–output, and the skin brain thesis. Adaptive Behavior 21:67–85. doi:10.1177/1059712312465330
Kelly, PN (2018) The cancer immunotherapy revolution. Science 359:1344–1345. doi:10.1126/science.359.6382.1344
Khandaker, GM, Cousins, L, Deakin, J, et al. (2015) Inflammation and immunity in schizophrenia: implications for pathophysiology and treatment. Lancet Psychiatry 2:258–270. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00122-9
Kiecolt-Glaser, JK, McGuire, L, Robles, TF, Glaser, R (2002) Psychoneuroimmunology and psychosomatic medicine: back to the future. Psychosom Med 64:15–28
Kiers, ET, West, SA (2015) Evolving new organisms via symbiosis. Science 348:392–394. doi:10.1126/science.aaa9605
Kioussis, D, Pachnis, V (2009) Immune and nervous systems: more than just a superficial similarity? Immunity 31:705–710. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2009.09.009
Kipnis, J (2016) Multifaceted interactions between adaptive immunity and the central nervous system. Science 353:766–771. doi:10.1126/science.aag2638
Kipnis, J, Cohen, H, Cardon, M, et al. (2004) T cell deficiency leads to cognitive dysfunction: Implications for therapeutic vaccination for schizophrenia and other psychiatric conditions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:8180–8185. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402268101
Kipnis, J, Gadani, S, Derecki, NC (2012) Pro-cognitive properties of T cells. Nat Rev Immunol 12:663–669. doi:10.1038/nri3280
Kitano, H (2004a) Cancer as a robust system: implications for anticancer therapy. Nat Rev Cancer 4:227–235. doi:10.1038/nrc1300
Kitano, H (2004b) Biological robustness. Nat Rev Genet 5:826–837. doi:10.1038/nrg1471
Klein, G, Imreh, S, Zabarovsky, ER (2007) Why Do We Not All Die of Cancer at an Early Age? In: Advances in Cancer Research. Academic Press, pp. 1–16
Klein, J (1982) Immunology: The Science of Self-Nonself Discrimination. Wiley, New York
Koebel, CM, Vermi, W, Swann, JB, et al. (2007) Adaptive immunity maintains occult cancer in an equilibrium state. Nature 450:903–907. doi:10.1038/nature06309
Konsman, JP, Parnet, P, Dantzer, R (2002) Cytokine-induced sickness behaviour: mechanisms and implications. Trends in Neurosciences 25:154–159. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(00)02088-9
Koonin, EV (2019) CRISPR: a new principle of genome engineering linked to conceptual shifts in evolutionary biology. Biol Philos 34:9. doi:10.1007/s10539-018-9658-7
Koopman, FA, Chavan, SS, Miljko, S, et al. (2016) Vagus nerve stimulation inhibits cytokine production and attenuates disease severity in rheumatoid arthritis. PNAS 113:8284–8289. doi:10.1073/pnas.1605635113
Kovaka, K (2015) Biological individuality and scientific practice. Philosophy of Science 82:1092–1103. doi:10.1086/683443
Kumar, V, Patel, S, Tcyganov, E, Gabrilovich, DI (2016) The nature of myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the tumor microenvironment. Trends in Immunology 37:208–220. doi:10.1016/j.it.2016.01.004
Langman, RE, Cohn, M (2000) Editorial introduction. Seminars in Immunology 12:159–162. doi:10.1006/smim.2000.0227
Lanier, LL, Sun, JC (2009) Do the terms innate and adaptive immunity create conceptual barriers? Nat Rev Immunol 9:302–303. doi:10.1038/nri2547
Laplane, L (2016) Cancer Stem Cells: Philosophy and Therapies. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
Laplane, L, Duluc, D, Larmonier, N, et al. (2018) The multiple layers of the tumor environment. Trends in Cancer. doi:10.1016/j.trecan.2018.10.002
Laplane, L, Mantovani, P, Adolphs, R, Chang, H, Mantovani, A, McFall-Ngai, M, Rovelli, C, Sober, E, Pradeu, T. 2019. Why science needs philosophy. PNAS 116: 3948–3952. doi:10.1073/pnas.1900357116
Laurent, P, Jolivel, V, Manicki, P, et al. (2017) Immune-mediated repair: a matter of plasticity. Front Immunol 8:. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2017.00454
Leach, DR, Krummel, MF, Allison, JP (1996) Enhancement of antitumor immunity by CTLA-4 blockade. Science 271:1734–1736
Lean, C, Plutynski, A (2016) The evolution of failure: explaining cancer as an evolutionary process. Biol Philos 31:39–57. doi:10.1007/s10539-015-9511-1
Leboyer, M, Berk, M, Yolken, RH, et al. (2016) Immuno-psychiatry: an agenda for clinical practice and innovative research. BMC Medicine 14:173. doi:10.1186/s12916-016-0712-5
Lee, H, Brott, BK, Kirkby, LA, et al. (2014) Synapse elimination and learning rules co-regulated by MHC class I H2-Db. Nature 509:195–200. doi:10.1038/nature13154
Lehuen, A, Diana, J, Zaccone, P, Cooke, A (2010) Immune cell crosstalk in type 1 diabetes. Nature Reviews Immunology 10:501–513. doi:10.1038/nri2787
Lemaitre, B, Hoffmann, J (2007) The host defense of Drosophila melanogaster. Annu Rev Immunol 25:697–743. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.25.022106.141615
Lesokhin, AM, Callahan, MK, Postow, MA, Wolchok, JD (2015) On being less tolerant: Enhanced cancer immunosurveillance enabled by targeting checkpoints and agonists of T cell activation. Science Translational Medicine 7:280sr1-280sr1. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3010274
Letai, A (2017) Apoptosis and Cancer. Annual Review of Cancer Biology 1:275–294. doi:10.1146/annurev-cancerbio-050216-121933
Liblau, RS (2018) Put to sleep by immune cells. Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-06666-w
Lidgard, S, Nyhart, LK (eds.) (2017) Biological Individuality: Integrating Scientific, Philosophical, and Historical Perspectives. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Loeb, L (1937) The biological basis of individuality. Science 86:1–5
Louveau, A, Harris, TH, Kipnis, J (2015a) Revisiting the mechanisms of CNS immune privilege. Trends in Immunology 36:569–577. doi:10.1016/j.it.2015.08.006
Louveau, A, Smirnov, I, Keyes, TJ, et al. (2015b) Structural and functional features of central nervous system lymphatic vessels. Nature 523:337–341. doi:10.1038/nature14432
Löwy, I (1991) The Immunological Construction of the Self. In: Tauber, AI (ed.) Organism and the Origins of Self. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 3–75
Lumeng, CN, Saltiel, AR (2011) Inflammatory links between obesity and metabolic disease. J Clin Invest 121:2111–2117. doi:10.1172/JCI57132
Maddox, J (1984) Psychoimmunology before its time. Nature 309:400. doi:10.1038/309400a0
Maman, S, Witz, IP (2018) A history of exploring cancer in context. Nature Reviews Cancer 18:359–376. doi:10.1038/s41568-018-0006-7
Mantovani, A, Allavena, P, Sica, A, Balkwill, F (2008) Cancer-related inflammation. Nature 454:436–444. doi:10.1038/nature07205
Mantovani, A, Biswas, SK, Galdiero, MR, et al. (2013) Macrophage plasticity and polarization in tissue repair and remodelling. J Pathol 229:176–185. doi:10.1002/path.4133
Mantovani, A, Bottazzi, B, Colotta, F, et al. (1992) The origin and function of tumor-associated macrophages. Immunol Today 13:265–270. doi:10.1016/0167-5699(92)90008-U
Matthen, M, Levy, E (1984) Teleology, error, and the human immune system. The Journal of Philosophy 81:351–372. doi:10.2307/2026291
Matzinger, P (2002) The danger model: A renewed sense of self. Science 296:301–305
Maynard Smith, J, Szathmáry, E (1995) The Major Transitions in Evolution. WHFreeman Spektrum, Oxford; New York
McFall-Ngai, M, Hadfield, MG, Bosch, TCG, et al. (2013) Animals in a bacterial world, a new imperative for the life sciences. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:3229–3236. doi:10.1073/pnas.1218525110
McFall-Ngai, MJ (2002) Unseen forces: the influence of bacteria on animal development. Developmental Biology 242:1–14. doi:10.1006/dbio.2001.0522
McFarland, H, Reich, DS, Jacobson, S (2017) Introduction to the Special Issue “40 Years-Neuroimmunology.” Journal of Neuroimmunology 304:1. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.01.022
Medawar, PB (1957) The Uniqueness of the Individual. Methuen, Londres
Melander, P (1993) How not to explain the errors of the immune system. Philosophy of Science 60:223–241. doi:10.1086/289730
Mellor, AL, Munn, DH (2008) Creating immune privilege: active local suppression that benefits friends, but protects foes. Nat Rev Immunol 8:74–80. doi:10.1038/nri2233
Melo, FDSE, Vermeulen, L, Fessler, E, Medema, JP (2013) Cancer heterogeneity—a multifaceted view. EMBO Reports 14:686–695. doi:10.1038/embor.2013.92
Méthot P-O, Alizon S (2014) What is a pathogen? Toward a process view of host-parasite interactions. Virulence 5:775–785. doi:10.4161/21505594.2014.960726
Michell-Robinson, MA, Touil, H, Healy, LM, et al. (2015) Roles of microglia in brain development, tissue maintenance and repair. Brain 138:1138–1159. doi:10.1093/brain/awv066
Michod, RE (1999) Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Miller, AH, Raison, CL (2016) The role of inflammation in depression: from evolutionary imperative to modern treatment target. Nat Rev Immunol 16:22–34. doi:10.1038/nri.2015.5
Miller, BJ, Buckley, PF (2017) Monoclonal antibody immunotherapy in psychiatric disorders. The Lancet Psychiatry 4:13–15. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30366-2
Miller, G (2009) On the origin of the nervous system. Science 325:24–26. doi:10.1126/science.325_24
Moreau, J-F, Pradeu, T, GRignolio, A, et al. The emerging role of ECM crosslinking in T cell mobility as a hallmark of immunosenescence in humans. Ageing Research Reviews. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2016.11.005
Moulin, A-M (1991) Le Dernier langage de la médecine. PUF, Paris
Mueller, KL, Hines, PJ, Travis, J (2016) Neuroimmunology. Science 353:760–761. doi:10.1126/science.353.6301.760
Müller, WEG (2003) The origin of metazoan complexity: porifera as integrated animals. Integr Comp Biol 43:3–10. doi:10.1093/icb/43.1.3
Muraille, E (2013) Redefining the immune system as a social interface for cooperative processes. PLoS Pathog 9:e1003203. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003203
Murdoch, C, Muthana, M, Coffelt, SB, Lewis, CE (2008) The role of myeloid cells in the promotion of tumour angiogenesis. Nat Rev Cancer 8:618–631. doi:10.1038/nrc2444
Nagata, S (2018) Apoptosis and clearance of apoptotic cells. Annual Review of Immunology 36:489–517. doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-042617-053010
Nimmerjahn, A, Kirchhoff, F, Helmchen, F (2005) Resting microglial cells are highly dynamic surveillants of brain parenchyma in vivo. Science 308:1314–1318. doi:10.1126/science.1110647
Nowell, PC (1976) The clonal evolution of tumor cell populations. Science 194:23–28. doi:10.1126/science.959840
Nuñez, JK, Harrington, LB, Kranzusch, PJ, et al. (2015) Foreign DNA capture during CRISPR–Cas adaptive immunity. Nature 527:535–538. doi:10.1038/nature15760
Okabe, Y, Medzhitov, R (2016) Tissue biology perspective on macrophages. Nat Immunol 17:9–17. doi:10.1038/ni.3320
Okasha, S (2006) Evolution and the Levels of Selection. Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press, Oxford; NY
Ordovas-Montanes, J, Rakoff-Nahoum, S, Huang, S, et al. (2015) The regulation of immunological processes by peripheral neurons in homeostasis and disease. Trends Immunol 36:578–604. doi:10.1016/j.it.2015.08.007
Osimo, EF, Cardinal, RN, Jones, PB, Khandaker, GM (2018) Prevalence and correlates of low-grade systemic inflammation in adult psychiatric inpatients: An electronic health record-based study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 91:226–234. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.02.031
Ottaviani, E, Malagoli, D, Franceschi, C (2007) Common evolutionary origin of the immune and neuroendocrine systems: from morphological and functional evidence to in silico approaches. Trends in Immunology 28:497–502. doi:10.1016/j.it.2007.08.007
Owen, RD (1945) Immunogenetic consequences of vascular anastomoses between bovine twins. Science 102:400–401. doi:10.1126/science.102.2651.400
Pamer, EG (2014) Fecal microbiota transplantation: effectiveness, complexities, and lingering concerns. Mucosal Immunology 7:210–214. doi:10.1038/mi.2013.117
Pamer, EG (2016) Resurrecting the intestinal microbiota to combat antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Science 352:535–538. doi:10.1126/science.aad9382
Pancer, Z, Cooper, MD (2006) The evolution of adaptive immunity. Annu Rev Immunol 24:497–518. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090542
Pariante, CM (2015) Psychoneuroimmunology or immunopsychiatry? Lancet Psychiatry 2:197–199. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00042-5
Parkhurst, CN, Yang, G, Ninan, I, et al. (2013) Microglia promote learning-dependent synapse formation through brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Cell 155:1596–1609. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.11.030
Pastor-Pareja, JC, Wu, M, Xu, T (2008) An innate immune response of blood cells to tumors and tissue damage in Drosophila. Disease Models & Mechanisms dmm.000950. doi:10.1242/dmm.000950
Pauken, KE, Wherry, EJ (2015) Overcoming T cell exhaustion in infection and cancer. Trends in Immunology 36:265–276. doi:10.1016/j.it.2015.02.008
Paul, WE (2015) Immunity. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
Petrovsky, N (2001) Towards a unified model of neuroendocrine–immune interaction. Immunol Cell Biol 79:350–357. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1711.2001.01029.x
Plutynski, A (2018) Explaining Cancer: Finding Order in Disorder. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York
Postow, MA, Sidlow, R, Hellmann, MD (2018) Immune-related adverse events associated with immune checkpoint blockade. New England Journal of Medicine 378:158–168. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1703481
Pradeu, T (2012) The Limits of the Self: Immunology and Biological Identity. Oxford University Press, New York
Pradeu, T (2013) Immunity and the emergence of individuality. In: Bouchard, F, Huneman, P (eds.) From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 77–96
Pradeu, T (2016a) The many faces of biological individuality. Biol Philos 31:761–773. doi:10.1007/s10539-016-9553-z
Pradeu, T (2010) What is an organism? An immunological answer. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 32:247–268
Pradeu, T (2016b) Organisms or biological individuals? Combining physiological and evolutionary individuality. Biol Philos 31:797–817. doi:10.1007/s10539-016-9551-1
Pradeu, T, Carosella, E (2006a) On the definition of a criterion of immunogenicity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103:17858–17861
Pradeu, T, Carosella, E (2006b) The self model and the conception of biological identity in immunology. Biology and Philosophy 21:235–252
Pradeu, T, Du Pasquier, L (2018) Immunological memory: What’s in a name? Immunol Rev 283:7–20. doi:10.1111/imr.12652
Pradeu, T, Jaeger, S, Vivier, E (2013) The speed of change: towards a discontinuity theory of immunity? Nat Rev Immunol 13:764–769. doi:10.1038/nri3521
Prendergast, GC (2012) Immunological thought in the mainstream of cancer research: Past divorce, recent remarriage and elective affinities of the future. Oncoimmunology 1:793–797. doi:10.4161/onci.20909
Qian, B-Z, Pollard, JW (2010) Macrophage diversity enhances tumor progression and metastasis. Cell 141:39–51. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.03.014
Queller, DC, Strassmann, JE (2009) Beyond society: the evolution of organismality. Philos Trans R Soc Lond, B, Biol Sci 364:3143–3155. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0095
Radisky, D, Hagios, C, Bissell, MJ (2001) Tumors are unique organs defined by abnormal signaling and context. Semin Cancer Biol 11:87–95. doi:10.1006/scbi.2000.0360
Raison, CL, Capuron, L, Miller, AH (2006) Cytokines sing the blues: inflammation and the pathogenesis of depression. Trends Immunol 27:24–31. doi:10.1016/j.it.2005.11.006
Rankin, LC, Artis, D (2018) Beyond host defense: emerging functions of the immune system in regulating complex tissue physiology. Cell 173:554–567. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.03.013
Ransohoff, RM (2009) Chemokines and chemokine receptors: standing at the crossroads of immunobiology and neurobiology. Immunity 31:711–721. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2009.09.010
Ribas, A, Wolchok, JD (2018) Cancer immunotherapy using checkpoint blockade. Science 359:1350–1355. doi:10.1126/science.aar4060
Richet, CR (1894) La défense de l’organisme: cours de physiologie de la Faculté de médecine (1893–1894). Typographie Chamerot et Renouard, Paris
Ricklin, D, Hajishengallis, G, Yang, K, Lambris, JD (2010) Complement: a key system for immune surveillance and homeostasis. Nat Immunol 11:785–797. doi:10.1038/ni.1923
Robert, J (2010) Comparative study of tumorigenesis and tumor immunity in invertebrates and nonmammalian vertebrates. Developmental & Comparative Immunology 34:915–925. doi:10.1016/j.dci.2010.05.011
Round, JL, Mazmanian, SK (2009) The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease. Nat Rev Immunol 9:313–323. doi:10.1038/nri2515
Salter, MW, Beggs, S (2014) Sublime microglia: expanding roles for the guardians of the CNS. Cell 158:15–24. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.06.008
Sanmamed, MF, Chen, L (2018) A paradigm shift in cancer immunotherapy: from enhancement to normalization. Cell 175:313–326. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2018.09.035
Sansonetti, PJ, Di Santo, JP (2007) Debugging how bacteria manipulate the immune response. Immunity 26:149–161. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2007.02.004
Sansonetti, PJ, Medzhitov, R (2009) Learning tolerance while fighting ignorance. Cell 138:416–420. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.07.024
Schäfer, M, Werner, S (2008) Cancer as an overhealing wound: an old hypothesis revisited. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 9:628–638. doi:10.1038/nrm2455
Schaffner, KF (1992) Theory change in immunology. Part II: The clonal selection theory. Theor Med 13:191–216
Schou, M, Sæther, SG, Borowski, K, et al. (2016) Prevalence of serum anti-neuronal autoantibodies in patients admitted to acute psychiatric care. Psychol Med 46:3303–3313. doi:10.1017/S0033291716002038
Schreiber, RD, Old, LJ, Smyth, MJ (2011) Cancer immunoediting: integrating immunity’s roles in cancer suppression and promotion. Science 331:1565–1570. doi:10.1126/science.1203486
Schretter, CE, Vielmetter, J, Bartos, I, et al. (2018a) A gut microbial factor modulates locomotor behaviour in Drosophila. Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0634-9
Schretter, CE, Vielmetter, J, Bartos, I, et al. (2018b) A gut microbial factor modulates locomotor behaviour in Drosophila. Nature 563:402. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0634-9
Schulenburg, H, Kurtz, J, Moret, Y, Siva-Jothy, MT (2009) Introduction. Ecological immunology. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364:3–14. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0249
Schumacher, TN, Schreiber, RD (2015) Neoantigens in cancer immunotherapy. Science 348:69–74. doi:10.1126/science.aaa4971
Sender, R, Fuchs, S, Milo, R (2016) Are we really vastly outnumbered? Revisiting the ratio of bacterial to host cells in humans. Cell 164:337–340. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.01.013
Shah, J, Zeier, J (2013) Long-distance communication and signal amplification in systemic acquired resistance. Front Plant Sci 4:. doi:10.3389/fpls.2013.00030
Shankaran, V, Ikeda, H, Bruce, AT, et al. (2001) IFNgamma and lymphocytes prevent primary tumour development and shape tumour immunogenicity. Nature 410:1107–1111. doi:10.1038/35074122
Shapiro, LA (2010) Embodied Cognition. Routledge, New York
Sharon, G, Sampson, TR, Geschwind, DH, Mazmanian, SK (2016) The central nervous system and the gut microbiome. Cell 167:915–932. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.10.027
Sherr, CJ (1996) Cancer cell cycles. Science 274:1672–1677
Siemionow, M (2016) The miracle of face transplantation after 10 years. Br Med Bull 120:5–14. doi:10.1093/bmb/ldw045
Silverstein, AM (2009) A History of Immunology, 2nd ed. Academic Press, London ; Burlington, MA
Silverstein, AM (2002) The Clonal Selection Theory: what it really is and why modern challenges are misplaced. Nat Immunol 3:793–796. doi:10.1038/ni0902-793
Simon, HA (Herbert, A (1969) The Sciences of the Artificial. MIT Press, Cambridge
Sivik, T, Byrne, D, Christodoulou, CN, et al. (eds.) (2002) Psycho-neuro-endocrino-immunology (PNEI): a common language for the whole human body: proceedings of the 16th World Congress on Psychosomatic Medicine, held in Göteborg, Sweden, 24th–29th August 2001. Elsevier, Amsterdam; Boston
Sober, E (1991) Organisms, Individuals, and Units of Selection. In: Tauber, AI (ed.) Organism and the Origins of Self. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 275–296
Sparkman, NL, Buchanan, JB, Heyen, JRR, et al. (2006) Interleukin-6 facilitates lipopolysaccharide-induced disruption in working memory and expression of other proinflammatory cytokines in hippocampal neuronal cell layers. J Neurosci 26:10709–10716. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3376-06.2006
Spoel, SH, Dong, X (2012) How do plants achieve immunity? Defence without specialized immune cells. Nat Rev Immunol 12:89–100. doi:10.1038/nri3141
Stearns, SC, Koella, JC (2008) Evolution in Health and Disease, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford; New York
Stefanová, I, Dorfman, JR, Germain, RN (2002) Self-recognition promotes the foreign antigen sensitivity of naive T lymphocytes. Nature 420:429–434. doi:10.1038/nature01146
Stein, C, Hassan, AH, Przewłocki, R, et al. (1990) Opioids from immunocytes interact with receptors on sensory nerves to inhibit nociception in inflammation. PNAS 87:5935–5939. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.15.5935
Steinman, L (2004) Elaborate interactions between the immune and nervous systems. Nat Immunol 5:575–581. doi:10.1038/ni1078
Steinman, L (2012) Lessons learned at the intersection of immunology and neuroscience. J Clin Invest 122:1146–1148. doi:10.1172/JCI63493
Stephan, AH, Barres, BA, Stevens, B (2012) The complement system: an unexpected role in synaptic pruning during development and disease. Annu Rev Neurosci 35:369–389. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113810
Stutman, O (1974) Tumor development after 3-methylcholanthrene in immunologically deficient athymic-nude mice. Science 183:534–536
Tanaka, A, Sakaguchi, S (2017) Regulatory T cells in cancer immunotherapy. Cell Research 27:109–118. doi:10.1038/cr.2016.151
Tanchot, C, Lemonnier, FA, Pérarnau, B, et al. (1997) Differential requirements for survival and proliferation of CD8 naïve or memory T cells. Science 276:2057–2062
Tauber, AI (1994) The Immune Self: Theory or Metaphor? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Tauber, AI (1991) Organism and the Origins of Self. Kluwer, Dordrecht
Tauber, AI (1997) Historical and philosophical perspectives concerning immune cognition. Journal of the History of Biology 30:419–440
Thomas, L (1959) Discussion. In: Lawrence, HS (ed.) Cellular and Humoral Aspects of the Hypersensitive States. Hoeber-Harper, New York, pp 529–532
Thomas, L (1982) On immunosurveillance in human cancer. Yale J Biol Med 55:329–333
van Nood, E, Vrieze, A, Nieuwdorp, M, et al. (2013) Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. New England Journal of Medicine 368:407–415. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1205037
Veiga-Fernandes, H, Pachnis, V (2017) Neuroimmune regulation during intestinal development and homeostasis. Nat Immunol 18:116–122. doi:10.1038/ni.3634
Virgin, HW (2014) The virome in mammalian physiology and disease. Cell 157:142–150. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.02.032
von Boehmer, H, Kisielow, P (1990) Self-nonself discrimination by T cells. Science 248:1369–1373. doi:10.1126/science.1972594
Vos, T, Allen, C, Arora, M, et al. (2016) Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. The Lancet 388:1545–1602. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6
Vuong, HE, Yano, JM, Fung, TC, Hsiao, EY (2017) The microbiome and host behavior. Annu Rev Neurosci 40:21–49. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031347
Wang, H, Naghavi, M, Allen, C, et al. (2016) Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. The Lancet 388:1459–1544. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1
Weiner, HL, Frenkel, D (2006) Immunology and immunotherapy of Alzheimer’s disease. Nature Reviews Immunology 6:404–416. doi:10.1038/nri1843
Welch, HG, Black, WC (2010) Overdiagnosis in cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 102:605–613. doi:10.1093/jnci/djq099
Wiggins, D (2016) Activity, process, continuant, substance, organism. Philosophy 91:269–280. doi:10.1017/S0031819115000637
Williams, S, Sakic, B, Hoffman, SA (2010) Circulating brain-reactive autoantibodies and behavioral deficits in the MRL model of CNS lupus. Journal of Neuroimmunology 218:73–82. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2009.10.008
Wimsatt, WC (1972) Complexity and organization. PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association 1972:67–86
Wing, K, Sakaguchi, S (2010) Regulatory T cells exert checks and balances on self tolerance and autoimmunity. Nat Immunol 11:7–13. doi:10.1038/ni.1818
Wolchok, JD, Kluger, H, Callahan, MK, et al. (2013) Nivolumab plus Ipilimumab in advanced melanoma. New England Journal of Medicine 369:122–133. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1302369
Wolfe, RA, Roys, EC, Merion, RM (2010) Trends in organ donation and transplantation in the United States, 1999–2008. American Journal of Transplantation 10:961–972. doi:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2010.03021.x
Wright, L (1973) Functions. The Philosophical Review 82:139–168. doi:10.2307/2183766
Wu, Y, Dissing-Olesen, L, MacVicar, BA, Stevens, B (2015) Microglia: dynamic mediators of synapse development and plasticity. Trends Immunol 36:605–613. doi:10.1016/j.it.2015.08.008
Wynn, TA, Chawla, A, Pollard, JW (2013) Macrophage biology in development, homeostasis and disease. Nature 496:445–455. doi:10.1038/nature12034
Wynn, TA, Vannella, KM (2016) Macrophages in tissue repair, regeneration, and fibrosis. Immunity 44:450–462. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2016.02.015
Xu, J, Gordon, JI (2003) Honor thy symbionts. PNAS 100:10452–10459. doi:10.1073/pnas.1734063100
Zardavas, D, Irrthum, A, Swanton, C, Piccart, M (2015) Clinical management of breast cancer heterogeneity. Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology 12:381–394. doi:10.1038/nrclinonc.2015.73
Zilber-Rosenberg, I, Rosenberg, E (2008) Role of microorganisms in the evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome theory of evolution. FEMS Microbiol Rev 32:723–735. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2008.00123.x
Zitvogel, L, Ma, Y, Raoult, D, et al. (2018) The microbiome in cancer immunotherapy: diagnostic tools and therapeutic strategies. Science 359:1366–1370. doi:10.1126/science.aar6918