Element contents
Fighting Armed Conflicts in Southeast Asia
Ethnicity and Difference
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 September 2020
Summary
This Element seeks to make sense of Southeast Asia's numerous armed conflicts. It makes four contributions. First, this study provides a typology, distinguishing between revolutionary, secessionist, and communal conflicts. The first two are types of insurgencies, while the latter are ethnic conflicts. Second, this study emphasizes the importance of ethnicity in shaping conflict dynamics. This is true even for revolutionary conflicts, which at first glance may appear unrelated to ethnicity. A third contribution relates to broad conflict trends. Revolutionary and secessionist conflicts feature broad historical arcs, with clear peaks and declines, while communal conflicts occur more sporadically. The fourth contribution ties these points together by focusing on conflict management. Just as ethnicity shapes conflicts, ethnic leaders and traditions can also promote peace. Cultural mechanisms are especially important for managing communal conflicts, the lone type not declining in Southeast Asia.
Keywords
Information
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781108686891Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 08 October 2020
References
Abinales, P. (2000). Making Mindanao: Cotabato and Davao in the Formation of the Philippine Nation-State. Manila: Ateneo University Press.Google Scholar
Adam, J. (2013). “A Comparative Analysis on the Micro-Level Genealogies of Conflict in the Philippines’ Mindanao Island and Indonesia’s Ambon Island.” Oxford Development Studies 41(2): 155–72.Google Scholar
al Qurtuby, S. (2013). “Peacebuilding in Indonesia: Christian–Muslim Alliances in Ambon Island.” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 24(3): 349–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aljunied, S. M. K., and Curaming, R. A. (2012). “Mediating Violence and Consuming Memories of Violence: The Jabidah Massacre in the Philippines.” Critical Asian Studies 44(2): 227–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Aragon, L. V. (2001). “Communal Violence in Poso, Central Sulawesi: Where People Eat Fish and Fish East People.” Indonesia 72(2): 45–79.Google Scholar
Arcilla, G. (2019). “NICA Chief Says CPP-NPA Wants Power, not Peace.” Philippine News Agency, June 20.Google Scholar
Arjona, A., Kasfir, N., and Mampilly, Z., eds. (2015). Rebel Governance in Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Aspinall, E. (2005). The Helsinki Agreement: A More Promising Basis for Peace in Aceh? Honolulu: East–West Center Policy Studies 20.Google Scholar
Aspinall, E.. (2009). Islam and Nation: Separatist Rebellion in Aceh, Indonesia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Aspinall, E.. (2014). “Special Autonomy, Predatory Peace, and the Resolution of the Aceh Conflict.” In Regional Dynamics in a Decentralized Indonesia, ed. Hill, H., 460–81. Singapore: ISEAS.Google Scholar
Aspinall, E., and Crouch, H. (2003). The Aceh Peace Process: Why It Failed. Honolulu, HI: East–West Center Policy Studies 1.Google Scholar
Avruch, K., and Jose, R. S. (2007). “Peace Zones in the Philippines.” In Zones of Peace, ed. Hancock, L. E. and Mitchell, C., 51–70. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian.Google Scholar
Barter, S. J. (2013). “State Proxy or Security Dilemma? Understanding Anti-rebel Militias in Civil War.” Asian Security 9(2): 75–92.Google Scholar
Barter, S. J.. (2015a). “Second-Order Minorities in Asian Secessionist Conflicts.” Asian Ethnicity 16(2): 123–35.Google Scholar
Barter, S. J.. (2015b). “Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Second-Order Minorities in the Aceh Conflict.” Asian Ethnicity 16(2): 152–65.Google Scholar
Barter, S. J.. (2018). “Rethinking Territorial Autonomy.” Regional Studies 52(2): 298–309.Google Scholar
Barter, S. J.. (2019). “Displacement and Reintegration in Aceh, Indonesia.” In Internal Migration: Challenges in Governance and Integration, ed. Barter, S. J. and Ascher, W. A., 113–28. New York: Peter Lang.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barter, S. J., and Côté, I. (2015). “Strife of the Soil? Unsettling Transmigrant Conflicts in Indonesia.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 46(1): 60–85.Google Scholar
Barter, S. J., and Ascher, W. A., eds. (2019). Internal Migration: Challenges in Governance and Integration. London: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Bartholomew-Feis, D. R. (2006). The OSS and Ho Chi Minh: Unexpected Allies in the War Against Japan. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.Google Scholar
Bertrand, J. (2000). “Peace and Conflict in the Southern Philippines: Why the 1996 Peace Agreement is Fragile.” Asian Survey 73(1): 37–54.Google Scholar
Bertrand, J.. (2004). Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bertrand, J.. (2010). “The Double-Edged Sword of Autonomy in Indonesia and the Philippines.” In Multinational States in Asia: Accommodation or Resistance, ed. Bertrand, J. and Laliberté, A.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 164–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bertrand, J., and Pelletier, A. (2017). “Violent Monks in Myanmar: Scapegoating and the Contest for Power.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 23(3): 257–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brancati, D. (2006). “Decentralization: Fueling the Fire or Dampening the Flames of Ethnic Conflict and Secessionism?” International Organization 60(3): 651–685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brubaker, R., and Laitin, D. (1998). “Ethnic and Nationalist Violence.” Annual Review of Sociology 24(1): 423–452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bubant, N. (2008). “Rumors, Pamphlets, and the Politics of Paranoia in Indonesia.” Journal of Asian Studies 67(3): 789–817.Google Scholar
Caballero-Anthony, M. (2005). Regional Security in Southeast Asia: Beyond the ASEAN Way. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Canuday, J. J. (2009). Bakwit: The Power of the Displaced. Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press.Google Scholar
Capuno, J. J. (2019). “Probing Conflict Contagion and Casualties in Mindanao, Philippines.” Defence and Peace Economics: 1–20.Google Scholar
Carey, P. (1999). “The Catholic Church, Religious Revival, and the Nationalist Movement in East Timor, 1975–98.” Indonesia and the Malay World 27(78): 77–95.Google Scholar
CAVR (Comissão de Acolhimento, Verdade e Reconciliação) (2005). Chega! Report of the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor. Dili: Government of East Timor.Google Scholar
Cederman, L. E. (2002). “Nationalism and Ethnicity.” In Handbook of International Relations, ed. Carlsnaes, W., Risse, T., and Simmons, B., 409–28. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Cederman, L. E., Weidmann, N., and Gleditsch, K. S. (2011). “Horizontal Inequalities and Ethnonationalist Civil War: A Global Comparison.” American Political Science Review 105(3): 478–95.Google Scholar
Cederman, L. E., Hug, S., Schädel, A., and Wucherpfenning, J. (2015). “Territorial Autonomy in the Shadow of Conflict: Too Little, Too Late?” American Political Science Review 109(2): 354–70.Google Scholar
Chandler, D. P. (1991). The Tragedy of Cambodian History: Politics, War, and Revolution since 1945. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Chandra, K., ed. (2012). Constructivist Theories of Ethnic Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, P. M. (1982). “The Sino-Vietnamese Dispute over the Ethnic Chinese.” China Quarterly 90: 195–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, A. L. H. (2001). “The Past in the Present: Memories of the 1964 ‘Racial Riots’ in Singapore.” Asian Journal of Social Science 29(3): 431–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chirot, D., and Reid, A. (2011). Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Christie, C. (2001). Ideology and Revolution in Southeast Asia, 1800–1980: Political Ideas of the Anti-colonial Era. London: Curzon Press.Google Scholar
Clutterbuck, R. (1985). Conflict and Violence in Singapore and Malaysia 1945–1983. London: Westview.Google Scholar
Coakley, J. (1993). “Introduction: The Territorial Management of Ethnic Conflict.” Regional Politics and Policy 3(1): 1–22.Google Scholar
Colletta, N. J. (2006). “Citizen Security – the Role of NGOs and Broader Civil Society in Ceasefire Monitoring: Lessons from Mindanao.” Journal of Peacebuilding and Development 2(3): 21–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Côté, I. (2019). “Adopting Migrants as Brothers and Sisters – Fictive Kinship as a Mechanism of Conflict Resolution and Conflict Prevention in Lampung, Indonesia.” In Internal Migration: Challenges in Governance and Integration, ed. Barter, S. J. and Ascher, W. A., 97–112. New York: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Côté, I., and Huang, L. E (2020). “Where are the Daughters? Examining the Effects of Gendered Migration on the Dynamics of ‘Sons of the Soil’ Conflict.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Côté, I., and Mitchell, M. I. (2017). “Deciphering ‘Sons of the Soil’ Conflicts: A Critical Survey of the Literature.” Ethnopolitics 16(4): 333–51.Google Scholar
Cribb, R. (2001). “Genocide in Indonesia, 1965–1966.” Journal of Genocide Research 3(2): 219–39.Google ScholarPubMed
Crocombe, R. (2007). Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West. Fiji: University of the South Pacific.Google Scholar
Cunningham, K. G. (2011). “Divide and Conquer or Divide and Concede: How Do States Respond to Internally Divided Separatists?” American Political Science Review 105(2): 275–97.Google Scholar
Davidson, J. S. (2008). From Rebellion to Riots: Collective Violence on Indonesian Borneo. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
di Tiro, H. (1979). The Drama of Achehnese History, 1873–1978. State of Acheh: Self-published.Google Scholar
di Tiro, H.. (1984). The Price of Freedoms: The Unfinished Diary of Tengku Hasan di Tiro. State of Acheh: Self-published.Google Scholar
Eck, K. (2009). “From Armed Conflict to War: Ethnic Mobilization and Conflict Intensification.” International Studies Quarterly 53(2): 369–88.Google Scholar
Egreteau, R. (2011). “Burmese Indians in Contemporary Burma: Heritage, Influence, and Perceptions since 1988.” Asian Ethnicity 12(1): 33–54.Google Scholar
Ehrentraut, S. (2011). “Perpetually Temporary: Citizenship and Ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 34(5): 779–98.Google Scholar
Elfversson, E., and Brosché, J. (2012). “Communal Conflict, Connections, and the Case of Sudan.” African Journal on Conflict Resolution 12(1): 9–32.Google Scholar
Fan, H. (2012). “The 1967 Anti-Chinese Riots in Burma and Sino-Burmese Relations.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 43(2): 234–56.Google Scholar
Fearon, J. D. (2004). “Separatist Wars, Partition, and World Order.” Security Studies 13(4): 394–415.Google Scholar
Fearon, J. D., and Laitin, D. D. (2003). “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97(1): 75–90.Google Scholar
Fisher, R. J. (1993). “The Potential for Peacebuilding: Forging a Bridge from Peacekeeping to Peacemaking.” Peace & Change 18(3): 247–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, J. (2004). “The Rise of Religious Nationalism and Conflict: Ethnic Conflict and Revolutionary Wars, 1945–2001.” Journal of Peace Research 41(6): 715–31.Google Scholar
Goldstein, J. S. (2011). Winning the War on War: The Decline of Armed Conflict Worldwide. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Goscha, C. E. (2003). “Revolutionizing the Indochinese Past: Communist Vietnam’s ‘Special Historiography’ on Laos.” In Contesting Visions of the Lao Past: Laos Historiography at a Crossroads, ed. Goscha, C. E. and Ivarsson, S., 265–300. Copenhagen: NIAS Press.Google Scholar
Guan, A. C. (2018). Southeast Asia’s Cold War: An Interpretive History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Guardian (2005). “Machete Killings Fuel Indonesia’s Religious Hatred.” November 19, 2005.Google Scholar
Guterres, A. (2018). “UN Secretary General Press Remarks”. www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/press-encounter/2018–07-02/transcript-secretary-general%E2%80%99s-remarks-press-encounter.Google Scholar
Hamilton-Merritt, J. (1993). Tragic Mountains: The Hmong, the Americans, and the Secret War for Laos, 1942–1992. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Harish, S. P. (2006). “Ethnic or Religious Cleavage? Investigating the Nature of the Conflict in Southern Thailand.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 28(1): 48–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, M. C. (2013). Making Moros: Imperial Historicism and American Rule in the Philippine’s Muslim South. Dekalb: Northern Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Helbardt, S. (2015). Deciphering Southern Thailand’s Violence: Organization and Insurgent Practices of BRN-Coordinate. Singapore: ISEAS.Google Scholar
Henley, D. E. (1995). “Ethnogeographic Integration and Inclusion in Anti-colonial Nationalism: Indonesia and Indochina.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 37(2): 286–324.Google Scholar
Heydarian, R. J. (2015). “The Quest for Peace: The Aquino Administration’s Peace Negotiations with the MILF and CPP-NPA-NDF.” Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre Report.Google Scholar
Minh, Ho Chi (1945). “Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.”Google Scholar
Holmes, R. A. (1967). “Burmese Domestic Policy: The Politics of Burmanization.” Asian Survey 7(3): 188–97.Google Scholar
Horowitz, D. (1985). Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Horowitz, D.. (2001). The Deadly Ethnic Riot. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
ICG (2016). “Southern Thailand’s Peace Dialogue: No Traction.” Briefing 148, September 21, 2016.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, S. N. (2006). The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, S. N., and Kocher, M. A. (2007). “Ethnic Cleavages and Irregular War: Iraq and Vietnam.” Politics & Society 35(2): 183–223.Google Scholar
Kammen, D. (2003). “Master–Slave, Traitor–Nationalist, Opportunist–Oppressed: Political Metaphors in East Timor.” Indonesia 76: 69–85.Google Scholar
Kaplow, J. M. (2016). “The Negotiation Calculus: Why Parties to Civil Conflict Refuse to Talk.” International Studies Quarterly 60(1): 38–46.Google Scholar
Kaufman, S. J. (2001). Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, S. J.. (2011). “Symbols, Frames, and Violence: Studying Ethnic War in the Philippines.” International Studies Quarterly 55(4): 937–58.Google Scholar
Kaufmann, C. (1996). “Intervention in Ethnic and Ideological Civil Wars: Why One Can Be Done and the Other Can’t.” Security Studies 6(1): 62–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kell, T. (1995). The Roots of Acehnese Rebellion, 1989–1992. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kerkvliet, B. J. (1977). The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Keyes, C. F. (1967). “Isan: Regionalism Regional in Northern Thailand.” Cornell Thailand Series, Data Paper 66.Google Scholar
Kiernan, B. (2002). The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–79. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
King, D. Y., and Rasjid, M. R. (1988). “The Golkar Landslide in the 1987 Indonesian Elections: The Case of Aceh.” Asian Survey 28(9): 916–25.Google Scholar
KKR (Komisi Kebenaran dan Rekonsiliasi Aceh) (2019). “Aceh Truth and Reconciliation Commission: A Diplomatic Brief.” Available at http://kkr-aceh.com.Google Scholar
Krause, J. (2020). “Restrained or Constrained? Elections, Communal conflicts, and Variation in Sexual Violence.” Journal of Peace Research 57(1): 185–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kusaka, W. (2017). Moral Politics in the Philippines: Inequality, Democracy, and the Urban Poor. Singapore: NUS Press.Google Scholar
Kymlicka, W., and He, B. (2005). Multiculturalism in Asia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lev, D. S. (1967). “Political Parties in Indonesia.” Journal of Southeast Asian History 8(1): 52–67.Google Scholar
Levitsky, S., and Way, L. (2013). “The Durability of Revolutionary Regimes.” Journal of Democracy 24(3): 5–17.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, S. (2015). “Settler-State Apologies to Indigenous Peoples: A Normative Framework and Comparative Assessment.” Native American and Indigenous Studies 2(1): 15–39.Google Scholar
Lijphart, A. (1969). “Consociationalism Democracy.” World Politics 21(2): 207–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lintner, B. (1990). The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Burma. Ithaca, NY: SEAP Publications.Google Scholar
Loesch, J. (2017). “The GPH–MILF Peace Process in the Philippines to Prevent and Transform Violent Extremism in Mindanao.” Journal of Peacebuilding and Development 12(2): 96–101.Google Scholar
Luong, H. V. (1992). Revolution in the Village: Tradition and Transformation in North Vietnam, 1925–1988. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Lyall, Jason, and Wilson, Isaiah III (2009). “Rage against the Machines: Explaining Outcomes in Counterinsurgency Wars.” International Organization 63(1): 67–106.Google Scholar
Magno, J. P. and Gregor, A. (1986). “Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in the Philippines.” Asian Survey 26(5): 501–17.Google Scholar
Mampilly, Z. C. (2012). Rebel Rulers: Insurgent Governance and Civilian Life During War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Mason, T. D., Weingarten, J. P., and Fett, P. J. (1999). “Win, Lose, or Draw: Predicting the Outcome of Civil Wars.” Political Research Quarterly 52(2): 239–68.Google Scholar
Mauzy, D. K. (2013). “Malaysia: Malay Political Hegemony and ‘Coercive Consociationalism’.” In The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation: Case Studies of Protracted Ethnic Conflicts, ed. McGarry, J. and O’Leary, B., 118–39. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mauzy, D. K., and Milne, R. S. (2002). Singapore Politics Under the People’s Action Party. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
McCargo, D. (2008). Tearing the Land Apart: Islam and Legitimacy in Southern Thailand. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
McCarthy, J. F. (2007). “The Demonstration Effect: Natural Resources, Ethnonationalism, and the Aceh Conflict.” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 28(3): 314–33.Google Scholar
McCoy, A., ed. (2009). An Anarchy of Families: State and Family in the Philippines. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
McDermott, G. B. (2013). “Barriers toward Peace in Southern Thailand.” Peace Review 25(1): 120–128.Google Scholar
McKenna, T. M. (1998). Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Miller, M. A. (2004). “The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam Law: A Serious Response to Acehnese Separatism?” Asian Ethnicity 5(3): 333–51.Google Scholar
Miller, M. A.. (2008). Rebellion and Reform in Indonesia: Jakarta’s Security and Autonomy Policies in Aceh. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mozaffar, S., and Scarritt, J. R. (1999). “Why Territorial Autonomy Is Not a Viable Option for Managing Ethnic Conflict in African Plural Societies.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 5(3–4): 230–53.Google Scholar
MSF (Médecins Sans Frontièrs) (2017). “Rohingya Refugee Crisis.” www.msf.org/myanmarbangladesh-msf-surveys-estimate-least-6700-rohingya-were-killed-during-attacks-myanmar.Google Scholar
Nathan, K. S. (1990). “Malaysia in 1989: Communists End Armed Struggle.” Asian Survey 30(2): 210–20.Google Scholar
Paredes, O. (1997). “Higaûnon Resistance and Ethnic Politics in Northern Mindanao.” Australian Journal of Anthropology 8(3): 270–90.Google Scholar
Paredes, O.. (2015). “Indigenous vs. Native: Negotiating the Place of Lumads in the Bangsamoro Homeland.” Asian Ethnicity 16(2): 166–85.Google Scholar
Penders, C. L. M. (2002). The West New Guinea Debacle: Dutch Decolonization and Indonesia, 1945–1962. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Pinker, S. (2012). The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Pouvatchy, J. R. (1986). “Cambodian-Vietnamese Relations.” Asian Survey 26(4): 440–51.Google Scholar
PRIO (Peace Research Institute Oslo) (2012). “PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset 3.1.” B. Lacina and N. P. Gleditsch.Google Scholar
Pye, L. (1956). Guerrilla Communism in Malaysia. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Quimpo, N.G. (2001). “Options in the Pursuit of a Just, Comprehensive, and Stable Peace in the Southern Philippines.” Asian Survey 41(2): 271–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Race, J. (1973). War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Rahimmula, C. (2003). “Peace Resolution: A Case Study of Separatist and Terrorist Movement in Southern Border Provinces of Thailand.” Songkhlanakarin Journal of Social Science and Humanities 10(1): 98–112.Google Scholar
Reid, A. (2005). An Indonesian Frontier: Acehnese and Other Histories of Sumatra. Singapore: National University of Singapore Press.Google Scholar
Reilly, B. (2008). “Ethnic Conflict in Papua New Guinea.” Asia Pacific Viewpoint 49(1): 12–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ricklefs, M. C. (2012). Islamicisation and Its Opponents in Java: A Political, Social, Cultural, and Religious History, c. 1930 to the Present. Singapore: NUS Press.Google Scholar
Riwanto, T. (2013). From Colonization to Nation-State: The Political Demography of Indonesia. Jakarta: LIPI Press.Google Scholar
Robinson, G. (2009). “If You Leave Us Here, We Will Die”: How Genocide Was Stopped in East Timor. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Robinson, G.. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Rohman, A., and Ang, P. H. (2019). “Truth, not Fear: Countering False Information in a Conflict.” International Journal of Communication 13: 4586–601.Google Scholar
Rood, S. (2012). “Interlocking Autonomy: Manila and Muslim Mindanao.” In Autonomy and Armed Separatism in South and Southeast Asia, ed. Miller, M.A., 256–77. Singapore: ISEAS.Google Scholar
Sambanis, N. (2001). “Do Ethnic and Nonethnic Civil Wars Have the Same Causes? A Theoretical and Empirical Inquiry.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 45(3): 259–82.Google Scholar
Sarkees, M. R., and Wayman, F. (2010). “COW War Data, 1816–2007.” Washington DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Scott, J. S. (2009). The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sebastian, L. (1991). “Ending an Armed Struggle without Surrender: The Demise of the Communist Party of Malaya (1979–89) and the Aftermath.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 13(3): 271–98.Google Scholar
Short, A. (1970). “Communism, Race, and Politics in Malaysia.” Asian Survey 10(12): 1081–9.Google Scholar
Sidel, J. T. (2006). Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Siegel, James T. (1998). “Early Thoughts on the Violence of May 13 and 14, 1998 in Jakarta.” Indonesia 66: 75–108.Google Scholar
Simbulan, R. G. (2016). “Indigenous Communities’ Resistance to Corporate Mining in the Philippines.” Peace Review 28(1): 29–37.Google Scholar
Sison, J. M. (2004). Jose Maria Sison: At Home in the World, Portrait of a Revolutionary. London: Open Hand Publishing.Google Scholar
Sjamsuddin, N. (1985). The Republic Revolt: A Study of the Acehnese Rebellion. Singapore: ISEAS.Google Scholar
Smith, A. D. (1979). “Towards a Theory of Ethnic Separatism.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 2(1): 21–37.Google Scholar
Smith, A. D.. (1996). “Culture, Community, and Territory: The Politics of Ethnicity and Nationalism.” International Affairs 72(3): 445–68.Google Scholar
Smith, M. (2007). State of Strife: The Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict in Burma. Honolulu: East-West Center Policy Studies 36.Google Scholar
Solahudin, (2013). The Roots of Terrorism in Indonesia: From Darul Islam to Jem’ah Islamiyah. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Somers-Heidhues, M. (2012). “Anti-Chinese Violence in Java during the Indonesian Revolution, 1945–49.” Journal of Genocide Studies 14(3–4): 381–401.Google Scholar
St. John, R. B. (2006). Revolution, Reform, and Regionalism in Southeast Asia: Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Staniland, P. (2014). Networks of Rebellion: Explaining Insurgent Cohesion and Collapse. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Stark, J. (2003). “Muslims in the Philippines.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 23(1): 195–209.Google Scholar
Stuart-Fox, M. (1979). “Factors Influencing Relations between the Communist Parties of Thailand and Laos.” Asian Survey 19(4): 333–52.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. H. (1983). “The Burmese Communist Movement and Its Indian Connection: Formation and Factionalism.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 14(1): 95–108.Google Scholar
Temby, Q. (2010). “Imagining an Islamic State in Indonesia: From Darul Islam to Jemaah Islamiyah.” Indonesia 89: 1–36.Google Scholar
Thawnghmung, A. M. (2012). The ‘Other’ Karen in Myanmar: Ethnic Minorities and the Struggle without Arms. New York: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Thomas, M. L. (1986). “Communist Insurgency in Thailand: Factors Contributing to its Decline.” Asian Affairs 13(1): 17–26.Google Scholar
Tomsa, D. (2009). “Electoral Democracy in a Divided Society.” South East Asia Research 17(2): 229–59.Google Scholar
Topmiller, R. (2002). The Lotus Unleashed: The Buddhist Peace Movement in South Vietnam, 1964–66. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.Google Scholar
Torres, W. M. (2014). Rido: Clan Feuding and Conflict Management in Mindanao. Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press.Google Scholar
UN (United Nations) (1948). Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.Google Scholar
UNHCR (UN High Commissioner for Refugees) (2019). “UN Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar Calls on UN Member States to Remain Vigilant in the Face of the Continued Threat of Genocide.” New York: October 23, 2019.Google Scholar
van der Kroef, J. M. (1981). Communism and South-East Asia. London: MacMillan Higher Education.Google Scholar
Viartasiwi, N. (2018). “The Politics of History in West Papua – Indonesia Conflict.” Asian Journal of Political Science 26(1): 141–59.Google Scholar
Vu, T. (2016). Vietnam’s Communist Revolution: The Power and Limits of Ideology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Walton, M. J., and Hayward, S. (2014). Contesting Buddhist Narratives: Democratization, Nationalism, and Communal Violence in Myanmar. Honolulu: East-West Center Policy Studies 71.Google Scholar
Weiner, M. (1978). Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Weiss, M. (2020). “Legacies of the Cold War in Malaysia: Anything but Communism.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 50(4): 511–29.Google Scholar
Wood, J. R. (1981). “Secession: A Comparative Analytical Framework.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 14(1): 107–34.Google Scholar
Young, S., Pinkerton, A., and Dodds, K. (2014). “The Word on the Street: Rumor, Race, and the Anticipation of Urban Unrest.” Political Geography 38: 57–67.Google Scholar
Zartman, I. W. (2001). “The Timing of Peace Initiatives: Hurting Stalemates and Ripe Moments.” Global Review of Ethnopolitics 1(1): 8–18.Google Scholar
Accessibility standard: Unknown
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this element is currently unknown
and may be updated in the future.
- 5
- Cited by