Element contents
Locked Out of Development
Insiders and Outsiders in Arab Capitalism
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 22 December 2022
Summary
This Element argues that the low dynamism of low- to mid-income Arab economies is explained with a set of inter-connected factors constituting a 'segmented market economy'. These include an over-committed and interventionist state with limited fiscal and institutional resources; deep insider-outsider divides among firms and workers that result from and reinforce wide-ranging state intervention; and an equilibrium of low skills and low productivity that results from and reinforces insider-outsider divides. These mutually reinforcing features undermine encompassing cooperation between state, business and labor. While some of these features are generic to developing countries, others are regionally specific, including the relative importance and historical ambition of the state in the economy and, closely related, the relative size and rigidity of the insider coalitions created through government intervention. Insiders and outsiders exist everywhere, but the divisions are particularly stark, immovable and consequential in the Arab world.
Information
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781009042444Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 19 January 2023
References
Adair, Philippe, and Bellache, Youghourta. 2014. “Labour Mobility and the Informal Sector in Algeria.” TEPP Working Paper 2014–07. TEPP. http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/tepteppwp/wp14-07.htm.Google Scholar
Adly, Amr, and Meddeb, Hamza. 2020. “Beyond Regime Change: The State and the Crisis of Governance in Post-2011 Egypt and Tunisia.” In Socioeconomic Protests in MENA and Latin America, edited by Weipert-Fenner, Irene and Wolff, Jonas, 43–70. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
AFP 2016. “Impoverished Interior Poses Risk for Struggling Tunisia.” AFP, March 2, 2016.Google Scholar
AFP 2017a. “Tunisian Public Health Sector Struggles to Heal Itself.” AFP, May 29, 2017.Google Scholar
AFP 2017b. “Tunisia Union Calls for Action against Draft Budget.” AFP, October 17, 2017.Google Scholar
AFP 2021. “Tunisia’s Debt-Laden Public Companies Edge toward Ruin.” AFP, March 7, 2021.Google Scholar
Alazzawi, Shireen, and Hlasny, Vladimir. 2016. “Disparities in Cost of Living Changes after a Large-Scale Devaluation: The Case of Egypt 2016.” Paper presented at ERF Annual Conference. Cairo.Google Scholar
Amable, Bruno. 2003. The Diversity of Modern Capitalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amico, Alissa, and Hertog, Steffen. 2013. State-Owned Enterprises in the Middle East and North Africa. Paris: OECD.Google Scholar
Angel-Urdinola, Diego, Nucifora, Antonio, and Robalino, David. 2015. Labor Policy to Promote Good Jobs in Tunisia. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
News, Arab. 2021. “Egypt to Disburse Wage Increases Worth $1.6bn in July.” Arab News, May 24, 2021. https://arab.news/pt47x.Google Scholar
Arampatzi, Efstratia, Burger, Martijn, Ianchovichina, Elena, Röhricht, Tina, and Veenhoven, Ruut. 2018. “Unhappy Development: Dissatisfaction with Life on the Eve of the Arab Spring.” Review of Income and Wealth 64: S80–S113.Google Scholar
Arezki, Rabah, Lederman, Daniel, Harb, Amani Abou, Fan, Rachel Yuting, and Nguyen, Ha. 2019. Reforms and External Imbalances: The Labor-Productivity Connection in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar
Arezki, Rabah, Fan, Rachel Yuting, and Nguyen, Ha. 2021. “Technology Adoption and the Middle-Income Trap: Lessons from the Middle East and East Asia.” Review of Development Economics 25(3): 1711–1740.Google Scholar
Assaad, Ragui. 2014a. The Jordanian Labour Market in the New Millennium. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Assaad, Ragui 2014b. “Making Sense of Arab Labor Markets: The Enduring Legacy of Dualism.” IZA Journal of Labor & Development 3(1):6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Assaad, Ragui, and Barsoum, Ghada. 2019. “Public Employment in the Middle East and North Africa.” IZA World of Labor, 463.Google Scholar
Assaad, Ragui, Krafft, Caroline, and Salehi-Isfahani, Djavad. 2018. “Does the Type of Higher Education Affect Labor Market Outcomes? Evidence from Egypt and Jordan.” Higher Education 75(6): 945–995.Google Scholar
Assaad, Ragui, Krafft, Caroline, and Salemi, Colette. 2021. “Socioeconomic Status and the Changing Nature of School-to-Work Transitions in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia.” Presented at ILR Review Workshop on Labor Transformation and Regime Transition: Lessons from the Middle East and North Africa. Cornell University.Google Scholar
Atiyas, Izak, and Diwan, Ishac. Forthcoming. “Egypt’s Missing Middle and Its Impact on Growth.” In The Egyptian Economy: Critical Challenges and Prospects, edited by Ikram, Khalid. Abdingon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ayubi, Nazih. 1980. Bureaucracy & Politics in Contemporary Egypt. London: Ithaca Press.Google Scholar
Ayubi, Nazih 1989. “Bureaucracy and Development in Egypt Today.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 24(1–2): 62–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barsoum, Ghada, and Abdalla, Dina. 2020. “Still the Employer of Choice: Evolution of Public Sector Employment in Egypt.” 1386. ERF Working Papers. Cairo: Economic Research Forum.Google Scholar
Beblawi, Hazem, and Luciani, Giacomo, eds. 1987. The Rentier State. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
Beissinger, Mark R., Jamal, Amaney A., and Mazur, Kevin. 2015. “Explaining Divergent Revolutionary Coalitions: Regime Strategies and the Structuring of Participation in the Tunisian and Egyptian Revolutions.” Comparative Politics 48(1): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellin, Eva. 2012. “Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from the Arab Spring.” Comparative Politics 44(2): 127–149.Google Scholar
Benhassine, Najy. 2009. From Privilege to Competition: Unlocking Private-Led Growth in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Bentolila, Samuel, Dolado, Juan Jose, and Jimeno, Juan F.. 2019. “Dual Labour Markets Revisited.” CESifo Working Paper. Munich: CESifo.Google Scholar
Berens, Sarah. 2015. “Between Exclusion and Calculating Solidarity? Preferences for Private versus Public Welfare Provision and the Size of the Informal Sector.” Socio-Economic Review 13(4): 651–678.Google Scholar
Biegert, Thomas. 2019. “Labor Market Institutions, the Insider/Outsider Divide and Social Inequalities in Employment in Affluent Countries.” Socio-Economic Review 17(2): 255–281.Google Scholar
Africa, Billionaires, Editorial. 2021. “Egyptian Tycoon Ahmed Ezz’s Steel Giant Reports $152.87 Million in Profit for H1 2021.” Billionaires. Africa (blog). August 9, 2021. https://billionaires.africa/egyptian-tycoon-ahmed-ezzs-steel-giant-reports-152-87-million-in-profit-for-h1-2021/.Google Scholar
Binzel, Christine. 2011. “Decline in Social Mobility: Unfulfilled Aspirations among Egypt’s Educated Youth.” 6139. IZA Discussion Paper. Bonn: IZA.Google Scholar
Bishara, Dina. 2018. Contesting Authoritarianism: Labor Challenges to the State in Egypt. Vol. 52. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishara, Dina 2021. “Precarious Collective Action: Unemployed Graduates Associations in the Middle East and North Africa.” Comparative Politics 53(3): 453–476.Google Scholar
Blaydes, Lisa, and Chaney, Eric. 2013. “The Feudal Revolution and Europe’s Rise: Political Divergence of the Christian West and the Muslim World before 1500 CE.” American Political Science Review 107(1): 16–34.Google Scholar
Bloomberg. 2019. “Haunted by Ghost Workers, Tunisian Phosphate Miner Seeks Revival.” Bloomberg, November 21, 2019.Google Scholar
Bogaert, Koenraad. 2013. “Contextualizing the Arab Revolts: The Politics behind Three Decades of Neoliberalism in the Arab World.” Middle East Critique 22(3): 213–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, Alison L., and Snower, Dennis J.. 1996. Acquiring Skills: Market Failures, Their Symptoms and Policy Responses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosch, Mariano, and Maloney, William. 2010. “Comparative Analysis of Labor Market Dynamics Using Markov Processes.” Labour Economics 17(4): 621–631.Google Scholar
Briggs, Biobele. 2007. “Problems of Recruitment in Civil Service: Case of the Nigerian Civil Service.” African Journal of Business Management 1(6): 142–153.Google Scholar
Brixi, Hana, Lust, Ellen, and Woolcock, Michael. 2015. Trust, Voice, and Incentives: Learning from Local Success Stories in Service Delivery in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar
Brooks, Sarah M. 2015. “Social Protection for the Poorest: The Adoption of Antipoverty Cash Transfer Programs in the Global South.” Politics & Society 43(4): 551–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burrowes, Robert D. 2005. “The Famous Forty and Their Companions: North Yemen’s First-Generation Modernists and Educational Emigrants.” The Middle East Journal 59(1): 81–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burrowes, Robert D. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Burrowes, Robert D. 2016. The Yemen Arab Republic: The Politics of Development, 1962–1986. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cammett, Melani, Diwan, Ishac, Richards, Alan, and Waterbury, John. 2015. A Political Economy of the Middle East. 4th ed. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Cammett, Melani, and Posusney, Marsha Pripstein. 2010. “Labor Standards and Labor Market Flexibility in the Middle East.” Studies in Comparative International Development 45(2): 250–279.Google Scholar
Campante, Filipe R., and Chor, Davin. 2012. “Why Was the Arab World Poised for Revolution? Schooling, Economic Opportunities, and the Arab Spring.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 26(2): 167–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassim, Aalia, Lilenstein, Kezia, Oosthuizen, Morne, and Steenkamp, Francois. 2016. “Informality and Inclusive Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa.” IDS Working Paper 470. Sussex: IDS.Google Scholar
Chapman, David W., and Miric, Suzanne L.. 2009. “Education Quality in the Middle East.” International Review of Education 55(4): 311–344.Google Scholar
Chekir, Hamouda, and Diwan, Ishac. 2015. “Crony Capitalism in Egypt.” Journal of Globalization and Development 5(2): 177–212.Google Scholar
Chong, Alberto, Galdo, José, and Jaime, Saavedra-Chanduví. 2007. “Informality and Productivity in the Labor Market: Peru 1986–2001.” SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 1820879. Rochester: Social Science Research Network.Google Scholar
Collier, Ruth Berins, and Collier, David. 1991. Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, the Labor Movement, and Regime Dynamics in Latin America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Dann, Uriel. 1989. King Hussein and the Challenge of Arab Radicalism: Jordan, 1955–1967. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bret, De Smet, and Malfait, Seppe. 2015. “Trade Unions and Dictatorship in Egypt.” Jadaliyya. August 31, 2015. www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/22526/trade-unions-and-dictatorship-in-egypt.Google Scholar
Desai, Raj M., Yousef, Tarik, and Anders, Olofsgård. 2007. The Logic of Authoritarian Bargains: A Test of a Structural Model. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Global Economy & Development.Google Scholar
Devarajan, Shantayanan, and Ianchovichina, Elena. 2018. “A Broken Social Contract, Not High Inequality, Led to the Arab Spring.” Review of Income and Wealth 64(s1): S5–25.Google Scholar
Dimova, Ralitza, and Stephan, Karim. 2020. “Inequality of Opportunity and (Unequal) Opportunities in the Youth Labour Market: How Is the Arab World Different?” International Labour Review 159(2): 217–242.Google Scholar
Diwan, Ishac 2021. “New Approaches for a Better Understanding of the Political Economy of the ‘New’ Middle East.” Habilitation à Diriger les Recherches, Paris: Ecole Normale Supérieure.Google Scholar
Diwan, Ishac, Malik, Adeel, and Atiyas, Izak. 2019. Crony Capitalism in the Middle East: Business and Politics from Liberalization to the Arab Spring. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Diwan, Ishac, Keefer, Philip, and Schiffbauer, Marc. 2020. “Pyramid Capitalism: Cronyism, Regulation, and Firm Productivity in Egypt.” The Review of International Organizations 15(1): 211–246.Google Scholar
Diwan, Ishac, and Schiffbauer, Marc. 2018. “Private Banking and Crony Capitalism in Egypt.” Business and Politics 20(3): 390–409.Google Scholar
Diwan, Ishac, and Akin, Tariq. 2015. “Fifty Years of Fiscal Policy in the Arab Region.” 914. Cairo: Economic Research Forum.Google Scholar
Djankov, Simeon, Rafael, La Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, and Shleifer, Andrei. 2002. “The Regulation of Entry.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 117(1): 1–37.Google Scholar
Dolado, Juan J. 2016. “EU Dual Labour Markets: Consequences and Potential Reforms.” Manuscript. Florence: European University Institute.Google Scholar
Doner, Richard F., and Schneider, Ben Ross. 2016. “The Middle-Income Trap: More Politics than Economics.” World Politics 68(4): 608–644.Google Scholar
Dornbusch, Rudiger, and Edwards, Sebastian, eds. 1991. The Macroeconomics of Populism in Latin America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
EBRD. 2016. “What’s Holding Back the Private Sector in MENA?” London: World Bank and EBRD.Google Scholar
Ehteshami, Anoushiravan, and Murphy, Emma C.. 1996. “Transformation of the Corporatist State in the Middle East.” Third World Quarterly 17(4): 753–772.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eibl, Ferdinand. 2020. Social Dictatorships: The Political Economy of the Welfare State in the Middle East and North Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Eibl, Ferdinand, Ketchley, Neil, and Gunning, Jeroen. 2022. “Anti-Austerity Riots in Late Developing States: Evidence from the 1977 Egyptian Bread Intifada.” Draft Paper. Oxford.Google Scholar
Eibl, Ferdinand, and Malik, Adeel. 2016. “The Politics of Partial Liberalization: Cronyism and Non-Tariff Protection in Mubarak’s Egypt.” Manuscript. Oxford.Google Scholar
Elbadawi, Ibrahim, and Loayza, Norman. 2008. “Informality, Employment and Economic Development in the Arab World.” Journal of Development and Economic Policies 10(2): 25–75.Google Scholar
El-Gammal, Yasser. 2013. “Can the Arab Awakening Change an Entrenched Culture of Nepotism?” Voices and Views: Middle East and North Africa. April 29, 2013. http://blogs.worldbank.org/arabvoices/can-arab-awakening-change-entrenched-culture-nepotism.Google Scholar
El-Haddad, Amirah. 2020a. “Redefining the Social Contract in the Wake of the Arab Spring: The Experiences of Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia.” World Development 127: 104774.Google Scholar
El-Meehy, Asya. 2010. Rewriting the Social Contract: The Social Fund and Egypt’s Politics of Retrenchment. Toronto: University of Toronto.Google Scholar
El-Said, Hamed, and Harrigan, Jane. 2009. “‘You Reap What You Plant’: Social Networks in the Arab World—The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.” World Development 37(7): 1235–1249.Google Scholar
Yaakoubi, El, Aziz. 2016. “Morocco Upper House Approves Draft Bill on Pension Reform.” Reuters, June 29, 2016.Google Scholar
Enste, Dominik H., and Schneider, Friedrich. 2000. “Shadow Economies: Size, Causes, and Consequences.” Journal of Economic Literature 38(1): 77–114.Google Scholar
ESCWA. 2016. “Social Protection Country Profile: Tunisia.” Beirut: Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia.Google Scholar
ESCWA 2020. “Social Protection Reform in Arab Countries.” Beirut: United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia.Google Scholar
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. 2013. “Stuck in Transition?” Transition Report. London: EBRD.Google Scholar
Evans, Peter B. 1995. Embedded Autonomy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fahim, Kareen. 2011. “Egypt’s Ire Turns to Confidant of Mubarak’s Son.” New York Times, February 6, 2011.Google Scholar
Falco, Paolo, and Teal, Francis. 2012. “Unemployment, Not Working and Jobs for the Young in Urban Africa: Evidence from Ghana.” Oxford: Centre for the Study of African Economies.Google Scholar
Faour, Muhammad. 2012. “The Arab World’s Education Report Card.” Carnegie Papers. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment.Google Scholar
Farazi, Subika Feyen, Erik, and Rocha, Roberto. 2011. Bank Ownership and Performance in the Middle East and North Africa Region. Policy Research Working Papers. World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5620.Google Scholar
Feldmann, Magnus. 2019. “Global Varieties of Capitalism.” World Politics 71(1): 162–196.Google Scholar
Ferrali, Romain. 2012. “The Maghribi Industrialists: Contract Enforcement in the Moroccan Industry, 1956-82.” 169/12. Economic History Working Papers. London: London School of Economics.Google Scholar
Filho, Fernando. 2012. “Income Inequality and Labor Market Dynamics in Brazil.” Rio de Janeiro: Fundação Getulio Vargas.Google Scholar
Francis, David, Hussain, Sahar, and Schiffbauer, Marc. 2018. “Do Politically Connected Firms Innovate, Contributing to Long-Term Economic Growth?” 8502. Policy Research Working Paper. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Gall, Carlotta. 2016. “Tunisian Town Simmers with Unrest.” New York Times, February 8, 2016.Google Scholar
Galli, Rossana, and Kucera, David. 2004. “Labor Standards and Informal Employment in Latin America.” World Development 32(5): 809–828.Google Scholar
Gatti, Roberta, Angel-Urdinola, Diego, Silva, Joana, and Bodor, Andras. 2014. Striving for Better Jobs: The Challenge of Informality in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Gatti, Roberta, Morgandi, Matteo, and Grun, Rebekka. 2013. Jobs for Shared Prosperity: Time for Action in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Ghaith, Zuraiqat, and Shama, Hadeel Abu. 2015. “Social Protection and Safety Nets in Jordan.” Bristol and Rome: Institute of Development Studies and World Food Program.Google Scholar
Giovanis, Eleftherios, and Ozdamar, Oznur. 2018. “The Nexus between Business-Investment Climate and Firm Performance in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region.” 1277. ERF Working Papers. Cairo: Economic Research Forum.Google Scholar
Guazzone, Laura, and Pioppi, Daniela, eds. 2009. The Arab State and Neo-Liberal Globalization. Reading: Ithaca Press.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob S., Thelen, Kathleen, and Pierson, Paul. 2015. “Drift and Conversion: Hidden Faces of Institutional Change.” In Advances in Comparative-Historical Analysis, edited by Mahoney, James and Thelen, Kathleen, 180–208. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Haddad, Bassam. 2020. Business Networks in Syria. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan. 1990. Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing Countries. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan, and Kaufman, Robert R.. 1995. The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan, and Kaufman, Robert R. 2008. Development, Democracy, and Welfare States. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Peter A., and Soskice, David W., eds. 2001. Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Han, Saerom. 2021. “Resisting State-Produced Precarity through Collective Actions.” Paper presented at ILR Review Workshop on Labor Transformation and Regime Transition: Lessons from the Middle East and North Africa. Cornell University.Google Scholar
Hancké, Bob, Rhodes, Martin, and Thatcher, Mark, eds. 2007. Beyond Varieties of Capitalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hansen, Brent, and Nashashibi, Karim. 1975. “Foreign Trade in the Egyptian Economy.” In Foreign Trade Regimes and Economic Development: Egypt, edited by Hansen, Brent and Nashashibi, Karim, 3–24. Cambridge, Mass.: NBER.Google Scholar
Hanushek, Eric A., and Woessmann, Ludger. 2012. “Do Better Schools Lead to More Growth?” Journal of Economic Growth 17(4): 267–321.Google Scholar
Hartshorn, Ian. 2016. “Tunisia’s Labor Union Won the Nobel Peace Prize. But Can It Do Its Job?” Monkey Cage (blog). February 26, 2016. www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/02/26/tunisias-labor-union-won-the-nobel-peace-prize-but-can-it-do-its-job/?utm_term=.38549925aff4.Google Scholar
Hartshorn, Ian. 2019. Labor Politics in North Africa: After the Uprisings in Egypt and Tunisia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Haut Commissariat au Plan, Moroc. 2013. “Activité, Emploi et Chômage 2013.” Rabat: Direction de la Statistique.Google Scholar
Henry, Clement M., and Springborg, Robert. 2010. Globalization and the Politics of Development in the Middle East. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hertog, Steffen. 2011. “The Perils of Economic Populism in the Mideast.” Bloomberg, July 25, 2011. www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-07-07/perils-of-economic-populism-in-the-mideast-commentary-by-steffen-hertog.Google Scholar
Hertog, Steffen 2012. “The Role of MENA Business in Policy-Making and Political Transitions.” In Business Politics in the Middle East, edited by Hertog, Steffen, Luciani, Giacomo, and Valeri, Marc, 1–16. London: Hurst.Google Scholar
Hertog, Steffen 2014. “Rent Distribution, Labour Markets and Development in High-Rent Countries.” LSE Kuwait Programme Paper Series (40). London: LSE.Google Scholar
Hertog, Steffen 2021. “When Rentier Patronage Breaks Down: The Politics of Citizen Outsiders on Gulf Oil States’ Labor Markets.” Paper presented at ILR Review Workshop on Labor Transformation and Regime Transition: Lessons from the Middle East and North Africa. Cornell University.Google Scholar
Heydemann, Steven. 1999. Authoritarianism in Syria: Institutions and Social Conflict, 1946–1970. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Heydemann, Steven ed. 2000. War, Institutions, and Social Change in the Middle East. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Heydemann, Steven ed. 2004. Networks of Privilege in the Middle East. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Heydemann, Steven 2007. Upgrading Authoritarianism in the Arab World. Saban Center Analysis Paper. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Heydemann, Steven 2020. “Rethinking Social Contracts in the MENA Region: Economic Governance, Contingent Citizenship, and State-Society Relations after the Arab Uprisings.” World Development 135: 105019.Google Scholar
Hill, Ginny, Salisbury, Peter, Northedge, Léonie, and Kinninmont, Jane. 2013. “Yemen: Corruption, Capital Flight and Global Drivers of Conflict.” Chatham House Report. London: Chatham House.Google Scholar
Hinnebusch, Raymond A. 1985. Egyptian Politics under Sadat: The Post-Populist Development of an Authoritarian-Modernizing State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hinnebusch, Raymond A. 1989. Peasant and Bureaucracy in Ba’thist Syria: The Political Economy of Rural Development. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Hinnebusch, Raymond A. 1997. “Syria: The Politics of Economic Liberalisation.” Third World Quarterly 18(2): 249–266.Google Scholar
IADB. 2004. Good Jobs Wanted: Labor Markets in Latin America. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.Google Scholar
International Monetary Fund. 2019. “Egypt: Fourth Review Under the Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility.” Country Report 19/98. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
International Monetary Fund 2021a. “Morocco: 2021 Article IV Consultation – Staff Report.” Country Report 21/2. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
International Monetary Fund 2021b. “Tunisia: 2021 Article IV Consultation – Staff Report.” Country Report 21/44. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
Intini, Vito. 2021. “Informality in the Arab Region.” Presented at the Social Policy in the MENA Region amid the Pandemic, Doha: HBK University, April.Google Scholar
Islam, Asif, Moosa, Dalal, and Saliola, Federica. 2022. Jobs Undone: Reshaping the Role of the Governments toward Markets and Workers in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Iversen, Torben, and Soskice, David. 2012. “Modern Capitalism and the Advanced Nation State: Understanding the Causes of the Crisis.” In Coping with Crisis: Government Reactions to the Great Recession, edited by Nancy Bermeo and Jonas Pontusson, 35–64. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Jawad, Rana. 2015. “Social Protection and Social Policy Systems in the MENA Region.” New York: UNDESA.Google Scholar
Jawad, Rana, Aboushady, Nora, Mansour, Hicham Ait et al. 2018. “New Directions in Social Policy in MENA Region.” Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.Google Scholar
Jebari, Idriss. 2020. “Ben Salah and the Fate of Destourian Socialism in Tunisia in the 1960s.” Jadaliyya (blog). September 23, 2020. www.jadaliyya.com/Details/41752.Google Scholar
Joffe, George. 1988. “Morocco: Monarchy, Legitimacy and Succession.” Third World Quarterly 10(1): 201–228.Google Scholar
Jöst, Prisca, and Vatthauer, Jan-Philipp. 2020. “Socioeconomic Contention in Post-2011 Egypt and Tunisia: A Comparison.” In Socioeconomic Protests in MENA and Latin America, edited by Weipert-Fenner, Irene and Wolff, Jonas, 71–103. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Joya, Angela. 2007. “Syria’s Transition, 1970–2005: From Centralization of the State to Market Economy.” In Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria, edited by Zarembka, Paul, 163–201. Bingley: Emerald Group.Google Scholar
Joya, Angela 2017. “Neoliberalism, the State and Economic Policy Outcomes in the Post-Arab Uprisings: The Case of Egypt.” Mediterranean Politics 22(3): 339–361.Google Scholar
Jreisat, Jamil E. 1989. “Bureaucracy and Development in Jordan.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 24(1–2): 94–105.Google Scholar
Kaboub, Fadhel. 2013. “The End of Neoliberalism? An Institutional Analysis of the Arab Uprisings.” Journal of Economic Issues 47(2): 533–544.Google Scholar
Kandil, Hazem. 2012. “Why Did the Egyptian Middle Class March to Tahrir Square?” Mediterranean Politics 17(2): 197–215.Google Scholar
Kang, David C. 2002. Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kavuma, Kavuma, Morrisey, Oliver, and Upward, Richard. 2015. “Worker Flows and the Impact of Labour Transitions on Earnings in Uganda.” CREDIT Research Paper 15/01. Nottingham: Centre for Research in Economic Development and International Trade.Google Scholar
Kee, Hiau Looi, Nicita, Alessandro, and Olarreaga, Marcelo. 2009. “Estimating Trade Restrictiveness Indices.” Economic Journal 119(534): 172–199.Google Scholar
Kienle, Eberhard. 1990. Baʻth v. Baʻth: The Conflict Between Syria and Iraq, 1968–1989. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Kinda, Tidiane, Plane, Patrick, and Marie-Ange, Véganzonès-Varoudakis. 2011. “Firm Productivity and Investment Climate in Developing Countries: How Does Middle East and North Africa Manufacturing Perform?” The Developing Economies 49(4): 429–462.Google Scholar
King, Elizabeth M., Montenegro, Claudio E., and Orazem, Peter F.. 2010. “Economic Freedom, Human Rights, and the Returns to Human Capital: An Evaluation of the Schultz Hypothesis.” 320. Working Papers. University of Chile, Department of Economics.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Stephen J. 2009. The New Authoritarianism in the Middle East and North Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Klapper, Leora, and Love, Inessa. 2011. “The Impact of the Financial Crisis on New Firm Registration.” Economics Letters 113(1): 1–4.Google Scholar
Klapper, Leora, Laeven, Luc, and Rajan, Raghuram. 2006. “Entry Regulation as a Barrier to Entrepreneurship.” Journal of Financial Economics 82(3): 591–629.Google Scholar
Kubinec, Robert. 2018. “Patrons or Clients? Measuring and Experimentally Evaluating Political Connections of Firms in Morocco and Jordan.” 1280. ERF Working Papers. Economic Research Forum.Google Scholar
Lackner, Helen. 1985. PDR Yemen: Outpost of Socialist Development in Arabia. Reading: Ithaca Press.Google Scholar
Langohr, Vickie. 2014. “Labor Movements and Organizations.” In The Arab Uprisings Explained, edited by Lynch, Marc, 180–200. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Levin, Victoria, Silva, Joana, and Morgandi, Matteo. 2012. Inclusion and Resilience: The Way Forward for Social Safety Nets in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Loayza, Norman V., and Rigolini, Jamele. 2011. “Informal Employment: Safety Net or Growth Engine?” World Development 39(9): 1503–1515.Google Scholar
Loewe, Markus, and Jawad, Rana. 2018. “Introducing Social Protection in the Middle East and North Africa: Prospects for a New Social Contract?” International Social Security Review 71(2): 3–18.Google Scholar
Malik, Adeel, and Awadallah, Bassem. 2013. “The Economics of the Arab Spring.” World Development 45: 296–313.Google Scholar
Malley, Robert. 1996. The Call from Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Maloney, William. 1999. “Does Informality Imply Segmentation in Urban Labor Markets?” The World Bank Economic Review 13(2): 275–302.Google Scholar
Manacorda, Marco, Rosati, Furio Camillo, Ranzani, Marco, and Dachille, Giuseppe. 2017. “Pathways from School to Work in the Developing World.” IZA Journal of Labor & Development 6(1).Google Scholar
Mansour, Abdelrahman, and Aboelgheit, Mohamed. 2016. “Hope without Illusion: Ten Signs of Change in Egypt.” Jadaliyya. March 14, 2016. www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/24060/hope-without-illusion_ten-signs-of-change-in-egypt.Google Scholar
Mazen, Maram. 2016. “Egypt’s ‘Milestone’ Parliament Criticized as Rubber Stamp.” AFP, October 10, 2016.Google Scholar
Mazur, Kevin. 2021. Revolution in Syria: Identity, Networks, and Repression. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. Cambridge: University Press.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, Gerald T. 1978. “Infitah in Egypt: An Appraisal of Egypt’s Open-Door Policy for Foreign Investment.” Fordham Law Review 46(5): 885–906.Google Scholar
MEMO. 2015. “Tunisian Government Raises Public Sector Salaries.” Middle East Monitor, September 23, 2015. www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/africa/21242-tunisian-government-raises-public-sector-salaries.Google Scholar
Merouani, Walid, Moudden, Claire El, and Hammouda, Nacer Eddine. 2021. “Social Security Enrollment as an Indicator of State Fragility and Legitimacy: A Field Experiment in Maghreb Countries.” Social Sciences 10(7).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mincer, Jacob. 1984. “Human Capital and Economic Growth.” Economics of Education Review 3(3): 195–205.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Timothy. 1999. “Dreamland: The Neoliberalism of Your Desires.” Middle East Report 210: 28–33.Google Scholar
Mohamed, Hasnaa. 2018. “2 Years Later, How Have People’s Lives Been Impacted by the Flotation of the Egyptian Pound?” Mada Masr. November 18, 2018. www.madamasr.com/en/2018/11/05/feature/economy/two-years-later-how-have-peoples-lives-been-impacted-by-the-flotation-of-the-egyptian-pound/.Google Scholar
Monga, Celestin, and Lin, Justin Yifu. 2015. The Oxford Handbook of Africa and Economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Monroe, Steve L. 2019. “Varieties of Protectionism: Ethnic Politics and Business Politics in Jordan.” In Crony Capitalism in the Middle East, edited by Atiyas, Izak, Diwan, Ishac, and Malik, Adeel, 263–88. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Montenegro, Claudio E., and Patrinos, Harry A.. 2014. “Comparable Estimates of Returns to Schooling around the World.” 7020. Policy Research Working Paper Series. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Mufti, Malik. 1996. Sovereign Creations: Pan-Arabism and Political Order in Syria and Iraq. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, Emma. 1999. Economic and Political Change in Tunisia. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Musacchio, Aldo, and Lazzarini, Sérgio G. 2014. Reinventing State Capitalism: Leviathan in Business, Brazil and Beyond. Harvard: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Musingafi, Maxwell, Dumub, Emmanuel, and Chadomoyo, Patrick. 2013. “Improving Performance in the African Civil Service: Empirical Evidence from Zimbabwe.” Public Policy and Administration Research 3(3): 19–26.Google Scholar
Nasri, Khaled. 2020. “Social Safety Nets in Tunisia: Do Benefits Reach the Poor and Vulnerable Households at the Regional Level?” GLO Discussion Paper.Google Scholar
Niu, Zhaohui, Liu, Chang, Gunessee, Saileshsingh, and Milner, Chris. 2018. “Non-Tariff and Overall Protection: Evidence across Countries and over Time.” Review of World Economics 154(4): 675–703.Google Scholar
Nölke, Andreas, and Vliegenthart, Arjan. 2009. “Enlarging the Varieties of Capitalism: The Emergence of Dependent Market Economies in East Central Europe.” World Politics 61(4): 670–702.Google Scholar
Nölke, Andreas, and Claar, Simone. 2013. “Varieties of Capitalism in Emerging Economies.” Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa 81(1): 33–54.Google Scholar
Nölke, Andreas, Tobias, ten Brink, Claar, Simone, and May, Christian. 2015. “Domestic Structures, Foreign Economic Policies and Global Economic Order: Implications from the Rise of Large Emerging Economies.” European Journal of International Relations 21(3): 538–567.Google Scholar
Nucifora, Antonio, Rijkers, Bob, and Freund, Caroline. 2014. “All in the Family: State Capture in Tunisia.” 6810. Policy Research Working Papers. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancur. 1965. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Osorio, Rafael Guerreiro, and Soares, Fábio Veras. 2017. “Social Protection after the Arab Spring.” Policy in Focus. Brasilia: International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth.Google Scholar
Owen, Roger, and Pamuk, Şevket. 1998. A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Packard, Truman, and Trang, Van Nguyen. 2014. East Asia Pacific at Work: Employment, Enterprise, and Well-Being. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Palier, Bruno, and Thelen, Kathleen. 2010. “Institutionalizing Dualism: Complementarities and Change in France and Germany.” Politics & Society 38(1): 119–148.Google Scholar
Peters, Anne Mariel, and Moore, Pete W.. 2009. “Beyond Boom and Bust: External Rents, Durable Authoritarianism, and Institutional Adaptation in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.” Studies in Comparative International Development 44(3): 256–285.Google Scholar
Pierson, Paul. 2000. “Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics.” The American Political Science Review 94(2): 251–267.Google Scholar
Pieterson, C. 2014. “Employee Turnover in a Local Government Department.” Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 5(2): 141–153.Google Scholar
Posusney, Marsha Pripstein. 1997. Labor and the State in Egypt: Workers, Unions, and Economic Restructuring. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Ramachandran, S. 2004. “Economic Development in the 1990s and Jordan: World Bank Assistance.” Country Assistance Evaluation 82103. Country Assistance Evaluation. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Reuters. 2016. “Political Rifts Threaten Tunisia Economic Reform.” Reuters, April 30, 2016.Google Scholar
Reuters 2021. “Analysis: Tunisian Political Chaos Threatens IMF Deal.” Reuters, May 27, 2021.Google Scholar
Rizk, Reham. 2016. “Returns to Education: An Updated Comparison from Arab Countries.” 986. ERF Working Papers. Economic Research Forum.Google Scholar
Robalino, David. 2005. Pensions in the Middle East and North Africa: Time for Change. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Rougier, Eric. 2016. “‘Fire in Cairo’: Authoritarian–Redistributive Social Contracts, Structural Change, and the Arab Spring.” World Development 78: 148–171.Google Scholar
Rovny, Allison E., and Rovny, Jan. 2017. “Outsiders at the Ballot Box: Operationalizations and Political Consequences of the Insider–Outsider Dualism.” Socio-Economic Review 15(1): 161–185.Google Scholar
Rubin, Jared. 2017. Rulers, Religion, and Riches: Why the West Got Rich and the Middle East Did Not. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ruckteschler, Christian, Malik, Adeel, and Eibl, Ferdinand. 2019. “The Politics of Trade Protection: Evidence from an EU-Mandated Tariff Liberalization in Morocco.” 1352. Working Papers. Economic Research Forum.Google Scholar
Rudra, Nita. 2007. “Welfare States Dn Developing Countries: Unique or Universal?” Journal of Politics 69(2): 378–396.Google Scholar
Rueda, David. 2007. Social Democracy inside out: Partisanship and Labor Market Policy in Advanced Industrialized Democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rueda, David, Wibbels, Erik, and Altamirano, Melina. 2015. “The Origins of Dualism.” In The Politics of Advanced Capitalism, edited by Beramendi, Pablo, Häusermann, Silja, Kitschelt, Herbert, and Kriesi, Hanspeter, 1–40. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Saint-Paul, Gilles. 1996. Dual Labor Markets: A Macroeconomic Perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Salehi-Isfahani, Djavad. 2012. “Education, Jobs, and Equity in the Middle East and North Africa.” Comparative Economic Studies 54(4): 843–861.Google Scholar
Sayigh, Yezid. 2021. “Praetorian Spearhead: The Role of the Military in the Evolution of Egypt’s State Capitalism 3.0.” 43. MEC Paper Series. London: London School of Economics Middle East Centre.Google Scholar
Schiffbauer, Marc, Sahnoun, Hania, and Keefer, Philip. 2015. Jobs or Privileges: Unleashing the Employment Potential of the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Schlumberger, Oliver. 2008. “Structural Reform, Economic Order, and Development: Patrimonial Capitalism.” Review of International Political Economy 15(4): 622–649.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Vivien A. 2009. “Putting the Political Back into Political Economy by Bringing the State Back in Yet Again.” World Politics 61(3): 516–546.Google Scholar
Schmitter, Philippe C. 1974. “Still the Century of Corporatism?” The Review of Politics 36(1): 85–131.Google Scholar
Schmoll, Moritz. 2017. “Broken Promises: The Politics of Lax Enforcement of Tax Laws in Egypt.” PhD dissertation, London: London School of Economics.Google Scholar
Schneider, Ben Ross. 2013. Hierarchical Capitalism in Latin America: Business, Labor, and the Challenges of Equitable Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schuster, Christian. 2015. “Patrons against Clients: Electoral Uncertainty and Bureaucratic Instability in Patronage States.” Draft Paper. London.Google Scholar
Schwedler, Jillian. 2021. Rituals of Protest: CSIS interview. www.csis.org/analysis/rituals-protest.Google Scholar
Sehnbruch, Kirsten, Pineda, Rocío Méndez, and Atallah, Samer. 2021. “Multidimensional Quality of Employment (QoE) Index in Egypt: The Importance of an Employment Quality Approach to Policy.” Cairo: American University of Cairo. https://aps.aucegypt.edu/en/articles/652/policy-paper-multidimensional-quality-of-employment-qoe-index-in-egypt-the-importance-of-an-employment-quality-approach-to-policy.Google Scholar
Seifan, Samir. 2008. “The Reform Paradox in Syria.” St Andrews Papers on Contemporary Syria. St Andrews: Centre for Syrian Studies.Google Scholar
Shafiq, M. Najeeb, and Vignoles, Anna. 2015. “Beyond the Arab Spring: Education, Earnings, and Protest Participation.” Paper presented at AALIMS–Princeton Conference on Islam and Human Capital. October.Google Scholar
Simson, Rebecca. 2019. “Africa’s Clientelist Budget Policies Revisited: Public Expenditure and Employment in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, 1960–2010.” The Economic History Review 72(4): 1409–1438.Google Scholar
Stewart, Fino, and Yermo, Juan. 2009. “Pensions in Africa.” 30. OECD Working Papers on Insurance and Private Pensions. Paris: OECD.Google Scholar
Tamirisa, Natalia, and Duenwald, Christoph. 2018. Public Wage Bills in the Middle East and Central Asia. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
Tansel, Aysit, and Kan, Elif Oznur. 2012. “Labor Mobility across the Formal/Informal Divide in Turkey: Evidence from Individual Level Data.” Journal of Economic Studies 44(4): 617–635.Google Scholar
Tansel, Aysit, and Ozdemir, Zeynel. 2014. “Determinants of Transitions across Formal/Informal Sectors in Egypt.” MPRA Paper. November 15, 2014. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/61183/.Google Scholar
Economist, The. 2019a. “Millions of Retiring Arab Civil Servants Need Not Be Replaced.” The Economist, March 28, 2019.Google Scholar
Economist, The 2019b. “Egypt Is Reforming Its Economy, but Poverty Is Rising.” The Economist, August 8, 2019.Google Scholar
Thelen, Kathleen. 2014. Varieties of Liberalization and the New Politics of Social Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tzannatos, Zafiris, Diwan, Ishac, and Ahad, Joanna Abdel. 2016. “Rates of Return to Education in Twenty-Two Arab Countries: An Update and Comparison Between MENA and the Rest of the World.” 07. ERF Working Papers. Cairo: Economic Research Forum.Google Scholar
Wade, Robert. 2003. Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wahba, Abdellatif. 2017. “Egypt’s Cabinet Approves $2.48 Billion Social Aid Program.” Bloomberg, May 29, 2017.Google Scholar
Wahba, Jackline. 2009. “Informality in Egypt: A Stepping Stone or a Dead End?” Cairo: Economic Research Forum.Google Scholar
Waldner, David. 1999. State Building and Late Development. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Walsh, Declan. 2016. “Where’s My Mercedes? Egypt’s Financial Crisis Hits the Rich.” New York Times, March 10, 2016.Google Scholar
Walter, Andrew, and Zhang, Xiaoke. 2012. East Asian Capitalism: Diversity, Continuity, and Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Waterbury, John. 1970. Commander of the Faithful: The Moroccan Political Elite. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.Google Scholar
Waterbury, John 1983. The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat. Princeton Studies on the Near East. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wedeman, Andrew. 2001. “Development and Corruption: The East Asian Paradox.” In Political Business in East Asia, edited by Gomez, Edmund, 50–77. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Weipert-Fenner, Irene. 2020. “Unemployed Mobilisation in Times of Democratisation: The Union of Unemployed Graduates in Post-Ben Ali Tunisia.” The Journal of North African Studies 25(1): 53–75.Google Scholar
Weipert-Fenner, Irene, and Wolff, Jonas. 2020. Socioeconomic Protests in MENA and Latin America: Egypt and Tunisia in Interregional Comparison. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Werenfels, Isabelle. 2002. “Obstacles to Privatisation of State‐owned Industries in Algeria: The Political Economy of a Distributive Conflict.” The Journal of North African Studies 7(1): 1–28.Google Scholar
Whitehouse, Edward. 2007. Pensions Panorama: Retirement-Income Systems in 53 Countries. Paris: OECD.Google Scholar
Willis, Michael. 2012. Politics and Power in the Maghreb: Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco from Independence to the Arab Spring. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, Rodney J. A. 1988. “Jordan’s Trade: Past Performance and Future Prospects.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 20(3): 325–344.Google Scholar
Woldemichael, Andinet, Jodlowski, Margaret, and Shimeles, Abebe. 2019. “Labor Market Flexibility and Jobs in Select African Countries.” Working Paper 330. African Development Bank.Google Scholar
Bank, World. 2008a. “Resolving Jordan’s Labor Market Paradox of Concurrent Economic Growth and High Unemployment.” 39201-JO. Policy Notes. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Bank, World 2008b. The Road Not Traveled: Education Reform in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Bank, World 2014. The Unfinished Revolution: Bringing Opportunity, Good Jobs and Greater Wealth to All Tunisians. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Yassine, Chaaima. 2015. “The Nature and Determinants of Labor Market Dynamics in the MENA Region.” Presented at the ERF Labor and Human Resource Development Meeting, Cairo, July 27.Google Scholar
Accessibility standard: Unknown
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this element is currently unknown
and may be updated in the future.
- 15
- Cited by