Element contents
Series: Elements in Global China
Global China's Shadow Exchange
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 January 2024
Summary
This Element shows China has assumed a historical role in shaping a new turn in globalization. It has assertively engaged in the open globalizing process through its Belt and Road Initiative as well as in the clandestine process through its shadow networks. These networks have incorporated millions of common people who are unwitting agents of transnational exchange in a global shadow economy. In contrast to the neoliberal phase, the shadow turn in globalization is driven by a plurality of individual, corporate, and state actors with unique divisions of labour, hierarchies of control and domination, and modes of operation. By virtue of being a nodal centre for shadow operations, China is exerting its shadow power in regrouping global city networks, redefining global value chains, and reconfigurating state borders and power.
Keywords
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in Global ChinaOnline ISBN: 9781108975681Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 01 February 2024
References
Alff, Henryk (2016a). ‘Getting Stuck within Flows: Limited Interaction and Peripheralization at the Kazakhstan-China Border’. Central Asian Survey 35 (3): 369–386.Google Scholar
Alff, Henryk (2016b). ‘Flowing Goods, Hardening Borders? China’s Commercial Expansion into Kyrgyzstan Re-examined’. Eurasian Geography and Economics 57 (3): 433–456.Google Scholar
Alff, Henryk (2017). ‘Trading on Change Bazaars and Social Transformation in the Borderlands of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Xinjiang’. In Saxer, Martin and Zhang, Juan, eds., The Art of Neighbouring Making Relations across China’s Borders. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 95–119.Google Scholar
Amilhat-Szary, Anne-Laure and Giraut, Frédéric, eds. (2015). Borderities and the Politics of Contemporary Mobile Borders. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anders, Gerhard (2010). In the Shadow of Good Governance: An Ethnography of Civil Reform in Africa. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Joan B. and Gerber, James (2008). Fifty Years of Change on the U.S.-Mexico Border: Growth Development and Quality of Life. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Andreas, Peter (2000). Border Games: Policing the U.S.-Mexico Divide. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Andreas, Peter (2004). ‘Illicit International Political Economy: The Clandestine Side of Globalization’. Review of International Political Economy 11 (3): 641–652.Google Scholar
Andreas, Peter (2011). ‘Illicit Globalization: Myths, Misconceptions, and Historical Lessons’. Political Science Quarterly 126 (3): 403–425.Google Scholar
Andreas, Peter (2013). Smuggler Nation: How Illicit Trade Made America. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Andreas, Peter (2015). ‘International Politics and the Illicit Global Economy’. Perspectives on Politics 13 (3): 782–788.Google Scholar
Annual Report of China Ports 中国口岸年鉴. 2018; 2019. www.tjcn.org/e/tags/?tagname=%D6%D0%B9%FA%BF%DA%B0%B6%C4%EA%BC%F8.Google Scholar
Ayimpam, Sylvie (2015). ‘Informal Trade, Cross Border Networks and Contraband of Asian Textiles from Brazzaville to Kinshasa’. Journal of Borderlands Studies 30 (3): 395–403.Google Scholar
Bailyn, Bernard (2005). Atlantic History: Concept and Contours. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 88.Google Scholar
Ballvé, Teo (2012). ‘Everyday State Formation: Territory, Decentralization, and the Narco Landgrab in Colombia’. Environment and Planning D 30: 603–622.Google Scholar
Baud, Michiel and van Schendel, Willem (1997). ‘Toward a Comparative History of Borderlands’. Journal of World History 8 (2): 211–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belguidoum, Saïd and Pleiz, Olivier (2015). ‘Yiwu: The Creation of a Global Market Town in China’. Articulo – Journal of Urban Research 12. https://doi.org/10.4000/articulo.2863.Google Scholar
Benjamin, Nancy, Golub, Stephen, and Aly Mbaye, Ahmadou (2015). ‘Informality, Trade Policies and Smuggling in West Africa’. Journal of Borderlands Studies 30 (3): 381–394.Google Scholar
Bitabarova, Assel G. (2018). ‘Unpacking Sino-Central Asian Engagement along the New Silk Road: A Case Study of Kazakhstan’. Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies 7 (2): 149–173.Google Scholar
Brambilla, Chiara (2015). ‘Exploring the Critical Potential of the Borderscapes Concept’. Geopolitics 20 (1): 14–34.Google Scholar
Braudel, Fernand (1992). The Wheels of Commerce. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Bredeloup, Sylvie (2012). ‘African Trading Post in Guangzhou: Emergent or Recurrent Commercial Form?’ African Diaspora 5 (1): 27–50.Google Scholar
Brenner, Neil, Peck, Jamie and Theodore, Nik (2010). ‘Variegated Neoliberalization: Geographies, Modalities, Pathways’. Global Networks 10 (2): 182–222.Google Scholar
Byrne, James, Byrne, Joseph, Kuo, Lucas, and Sung, Lauren (2021). Black Gold: Exposing North Korea’s Oil Procurement Networks. Washington, DC: C4ADS and RUSI.Google Scholar
Castells, Manuel and Portes, Alejandro (1989). ‘World Underneath: The Origins, Dynamics, and Effects of the Informal Economy’. In Portes, Alejandro, Castells, Manuel, and Benton, Lauren A., eds., The Informal Economy: Studies in Advanced and Less Developed Countries. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 11-41.Google Scholar
Centeno, Miguel Angel and Portes, Alejandro (2006). ‘The Informal Economy in the Shadow of the State’. In Fernández-Kelly, Patricia and Shefner, Jon, eds., Out of the Shadows: Political Action and the Informal Economy in Latin America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 26–54.Google Scholar
Center for Strategic and International Studies (2023). A Survey of Reported Chinese Espionage, 2000 to the Present. Washington, DC: CSIS.Google Scholar
Chen, Yung-fa (1995). ‘The Blooming Poppy under the Red Sun: The Yan’an Way and the Opium Trade’. In Saich, Tony and van de Ven, Hans, eds., New Perspectives on the Chinese Communist Revolution. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 263–298.Google Scholar
Cheuk, Ka-Kin (2016). ‘Everyday Diplomacy among Indian Traders in a Chinese Fabric Market’. The Cambridge Journal of Anthropology 34 (2): 42–58.Google Scholar
China, E- Commerce Research Centre 中国电子商务研究中心 (2010). 2010年度中国电子商务市场数据监测报告 (China E-commerce 2010 Market Monitor Report). http://b2b.toocle.com.Google Scholar
Cleaver, Frances (2015). ‘In Pursuit of Arrangements that Work: Bricolage, Practical Norms and Everyday Water Government’. In Herdt, Tom De and de Sardan, Jean-Pierre Olivier, eds., Real Governance and Practical Norms in Sub-Sahara Africa: The Game of the Rules. London: Routledge, 207–227.Google Scholar
Cornelius, Wayne A. (2004). ‘Controlling “Unwanted” Immigration: Lessons from the United States, 1993–2004’. San Diego: UCSD CCIS Working Paper 92.Google Scholar
De Soto, Hernando (2000). The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Deleuze, Gilles and Guattari, Felix, translated by Massumi, Brian (1988). A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Minneapolis, London: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Dell’Anno, Roberto and Schneider, Friedrich (2003). ‘The Shadow Economy of Italy and Other OECD Countries: What Do We Know?’ Journal of Public Finance and Public Choice 21 (2–3): 97–120.Google Scholar
Economist, The. 23 June 2020.Google Scholar
Eilat, Yair and Zinnes, Clifford (2002). ‘The Shadow Economy in Transition Countries: Friend of Foe? A Policy Perspective’. World Development 30 (7): 1233–1254.Google Scholar
Qorchi, El, Mohammed, Samuel Munzele Maimbo, and Wilson, John F. (2003). ‘Informal Funds Transfer Systems: An Analysis of the Informal Hawala System’. A Joint IMF–World Bank Paper. International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
Elsing, Sarah (2019). ‘Navigating Small-Scale Trade across Thai-Lao Border Checkpoints: Legitimacy, Social Relations and Money’. Journal of Contemporary Asia 49 (2): 216–232.Google Scholar
Endres, Kirsten W. (2014). ‘Making Law: Small-Scale Trade and Corrupt Exceptions at the Vietnam–China Border’. American Anthropologist 116 (3): 611–625.Google Scholar
Evans, Peter (2008). ‘Is an Alternative Globalization Possible?’ Politics & Society 36 (2): 271–305.Google Scholar
Fedorova, Kapitolina (2012). ‘Transborder Trade on the Russian–Chinese Border: Problems of Interethnic Communication’. In Bruns, Bettina and Miggelbrink, Judith, eds., Subverting Borders Doing Research on Smuggling and Small-Scale Trade. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag, 107–128.Google Scholar
Feenstra, Robert C. (1998). ‘Integration of Trade and Disintegration of Production in the Global Economy’. Journal of Economic Perspectives 12 (4): 31–50.Google Scholar
Fehlings, Susanne (2020). ‘Doing Business in Yabaolu Market, Beijing: (Inter-)ethnic Entrepreneurship, Trust and Friendship between Caucasian and Chinese Traders’. Central Asian Survey 39 (1): 95–115.Google Scholar
Fehlings, Susanne (2022). Traders, Informal Trade and Markets between the Caucasus and China. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Feuling, Bradley A. (2010). ‘Developing China Sales and Distribution Capabilities’. China Business Review, 1 July. www.chinabusinessreview.com/developing-china-sales-and-distribution-capabilities/. Accessed 25 October 2015.Google Scholar
Fleming, Matthew H., Roman, John, and Farrell, Graham (2000). ‘The Shadow Economy’. Journal of International Affairs 53 (2): 387–409.Google Scholar
Flynn, Donna K. (1997). ‘“We Are the Border”: Identity, Exchange, and the State along the Benin-Nigeria Border’. American Ethnologist 24 (2):311–330.Google Scholar
Galemba, Rebecca B. (2008). ‘Informal and Illicit Entrepreneurs: Fighting for a Place in the Neoliberal Economic Order’. Anthropology of Work Review 19 (2): 10–25.Google Scholar
Gel’man, Vladimir (2004). ‘The Unrule of Law in the Making: The Politics of Informal Institution Building in Russia’. Europe-Asia Studies 56 (7): 1021–1040.Google Scholar
Gel’man, Vladimir (2012). ‘Subversive Institutions and Informal Governance in Contemporary Russia’. In Christiansen, Thomas and Neuhold, Christine, eds., International Handbook on Informal Governance. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 135–153.Google Scholar
Gereffi, Gary (2014). ‘Global Value Chains in a Post-Washington Consensus World’. Review of International Political Economy 21 (1): 9–37.Google Scholar
Gereffi, Gary, Humphrey, John, and Sturgeon, Timothy (2005). ‘The Governance of Global Value Chains’. Review of International Political Economy 12 (1): 78–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290500049805.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gershuny, Jonathan I. (1979). ‘The Informal Economy: Its Role in Post-Industrial Society’. Futures 11 (1): 3–15.Google Scholar
Gibson-Graham, J. K. (2006). A Postcapitalist Politics. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Gilles, Angelo (2015). ‘The Social Construction of Guangzhou as a Translocal Trading Place’. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 44 (4): 17–47.Google Scholar
Gilman, Nils, Goldhammer, Jesse, and Weber, Steven (2013). ‘Deviant Globalization’. In Miklaucic, Michael and Brewer, Jacqueline, eds., Convergence: Illicit Networks and National Security in the Age of Globalization. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 3–13.Google Scholar
Gong, Ting (2006). ‘Corruption and Local Governance: The Double Identity of Chinese Local Governments in Market Reform’. The Pacific Review 19 (1): 85–102.Google Scholar
Goodman, David S. G. (1996). ‘Corruption in the PLA’. In Segal, Gerald and Yang, Richard H., eds., Chinese Economic Reform: The Impact on Security. Oxford: Routledge, 35–52.Google Scholar
Hagmann, Tobias and Péclard, Didier (2010). ‘Negotiating Statehood: Dynamics of Power and Domination in Africa’. Development and Change 41 (4): 539–562.Google Scholar
Hall, Tim (2012). ‘Geographies of the Illicit: Globalization and Organized Crime’. Progress in Human Geography 37 (3): 366–385.Google Scholar
Han, Chang-Ryung, Nelen, Hans, and Kang, Yeonho (2015). ‘A Case Study on Shuttle Trade between Korea and China’. Journal of Borderlands Studies 30 (3): 437–451.Google Scholar
Hannas, William C., Mulvenon, James and Puglisi, Anna B. (2013). Chinese Industrial Espionage: Technology Acquisition and Military Modernization. Oxford: Routledge.Google Scholar
Harper, Tim and Amrith, Sunil S. (2012). ‘Sites of Asian Interaction: An Introduction’. Modern Asian Studies 46 (2): 249–257.Google Scholar
Harrington, Brooke (2016). Capital without Borders: Wealth Managers and the One Percent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Haugen, Heidi Østbø (2012). ‘Nigerians in China: A Second State of Immobility’. International Migration 50 (2): 65–80.Google Scholar
Haugen, Heidi Østbø (2018). ‘Petty Commodities, Serious Business: The Governance of Fashion Jewellery Chains between China and Ghana’. Global Networks 18 (2): 307–325.Google Scholar
Haugen, Heidi Østbø (2019a). ‘China-Africa Exports: Governance Through Mobility and Sojourning’. Journal of Contemporary Asia 49 (2): 294–312.Google Scholar
Haugen, Heidi Østbø (2019b). ‘Residence Registration in China’s Immigration Control: Africans in Guangzhou’. In Lehmann, Angela and Leonard, Pauline, eds., Destination China. Immigration to China in the Post-Reform Era. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 45–64.Google Scholar
Helmke, Gretchen and Levitsky, Steven (2004). ‘Informal Institutions and Comparative Politics: A Research Agenda’. Perspectives on Politics 2 (4): 725–740.Google Scholar
Herzog, Lawrence A. (1990). Where North Meets South: Cities, Space, and Politics on the U.S.-Mexico Border. Austin: Center for Mexican American Studies.Google Scholar
Heyman, Josiah McC. and Smart, Alan (1999). ‘States and Illegal Practices: An Overview’. In Heyman, Josiah McC, ed., States and Illegal Practices. Oxford: Berg, 1–24.Google Scholar
Hong Kong Trade Development Council (2016). ‘China-Kazakhstan Border Cooperation in Xinjiang’. http://hkmb.hktdc.com/en/1X0A5JIX/hktdc-research/China-Kazakhstan-Border-Co-operation-in-Xinjiang. Accessed 30 April 2018.Google Scholar
Horden, Peregrine and Purcell, Nicholas (2000). The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Hu, Wei 胡伟 and Chang, Yu 于畅 (2020). 区域协调发展战略背景下中国边境经济合作区发展研究 (‘Study on China’s Border Economy Cooperate Districts under the Background of Regional Coordinative Development Strategy’). 区域经济评论 (Review of Regional Economy) 2. www.cre.org.cn/qy/xietiao/15955.html. Accessed 29 September 2022.Google Scholar
Hung, Eva P. W. and Ngo, Tak-Wing (2019). ‘Organised Informality and Suitcase Trading in the Pearl River Delta Region’. Journal of Contemporary Asia 49 (2): 233–253.Google Scholar
Ibañez-Tirado, Diana and Marsden, Magnus (2020). ‘Trade “Outside the Law”: Uzbek and Afghan Transnational Merchants between Yiwu and South-Central Asia’. Central Asian Survey 39 (1): 135–154.Google Scholar
ILO (2017). Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage. Geneva: ILO.Google Scholar
International Business Times. 21 February 2014.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Mark D. (2016). Yiwu, China: A Study of the World’s Largest Small Commodities Market. New Jersey: Homa & Sekey Books.Google Scholar
Jeganathan, Pradeep (2018). ‘Border, Checkpoint, Bodies’. In Horstmann, Alexander, Saxer, Martin, and Rippa, Alessandro, eds., Routledge Handbook of Asian Borderlands. Abingdon: Routledge, 403–410.Google Scholar
Jin, Xin, Bolt, Gideon, and Hooimeijer, Pieter (2021). ‘Africans in Guangzhou: Is the Ethnic Enclave Model Applicable in the Chinese Context?’ Cities 117: 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, Dietrich, ed. (2003). Shadow Globalization, Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars: A Political Economy of Intra-State War. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kar, Dev and LeBlanc, Brian (2013). Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2002-2011. Washington, DC: Global Financial Integrity.Google Scholar
Karras, Alan L. (2010). Smuggling: Contraband and Corruption in World History. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Keefe, Patrick Radden (2013). ‘The Geography of Badness: Mapping the Hubs of the Illicit Global Economy’. In Miklaucic, Michael and Brewer, Jacqueline, eds., Convergence: Illicit Networks and National Security in the Age of Globalization. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 3–13.Google Scholar
Kelman, Jonathan H. C. (2015). ‘States Can Play, too: Constructing a Typology of State Participation in Illicit Flows’. Crime, Law and Social Change 64: 37–55.Google Scholar
Kleine, Mareike. (2013). ‘Knowing Your Limits: Informal Governance and Judgement in the EU’. The Review of International Organizations 8: 245–264.Google Scholar
Koff, Harlan (2015). ‘Informal Economies in European and American Cross-border Regions’. Journal of Borderlands Studies 30 (3): 469–487.Google Scholar
Koster, Martijn and Smart, Alan (2019). ‘Performing In/formality beyond the Dichotomy: An Introduction’. Anthropologica 61: 20–24.Google Scholar
Kupatadze, Alexander and Kumar, Lakshmi (2022). Everything Everywhere All at Once: Understanding the Implications of the Belt and Road Initiative on Trade-Based Money Laundering (TBML) and Illicit Supply Chains. Washington: Global Financial Integrity.Google Scholar
Kus, Basak (2010). ‘Regulatory Governance and the Informal Economy: Cross-National Comparisons’. Socio-Economic Review 8 (3): 487–510.Google Scholar
Laine, Jussi P. (2016). ‘The Multiscalar Production of Borders’. Geopolitics 21 (3): 465–482.Google Scholar
Laruelle, Marlène and Peyrouse, Sébastien (2009). ‘Cross-border Minorities as Cultural and Economic Mediators between China and Central Asia’. China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly 7 (1): 93–119.Google Scholar
Lo, T. Wing and Ingrid Kwok, Sharon (2017). ‘Triad Organized Crime in Macau Casinos: Extra-Legal Governance and Entrepreneurship’. The British Journal of Criminology 57 (3): 589–607.Google Scholar
Macau Daily 澳門日報. 17 June 2022; 2 September 2022.Google Scholar
Mahanty, Sango (2019). ‘Shadow Economies and the State: A Comparison of Cassava and Timber Networks on the Cambodia–Vietnam Frontier’. Journal of Contemporary Asia 49 (2): 193–215.Google Scholar
Maloney, William F. (2004). ‘Informality Revisited’. World Development 32 (7): 1159–1178.Google Scholar
Mandel, Robert (2010). Dark Logic: Transnational Criminal Tactics and Global Security. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Marsden, Magnus (2016). ‘Crossing Eurasia: Trans-regional Afghan Trading Networks in China and Beyond’. Central Asian Survey 35 (1): 1–15.Google Scholar
Marsden, Magnus (2018). ‘Beyond Bukhara: Trade, Identity and Interregional Exchange across Asia’. History and Anthropology 29 (sup1): S84–S100.Google Scholar
Mathew, Johan (2016). Margins of the Market Trafficking and Capitalism across the Arabian Sea. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Mathews, Gordon (2011). Ghetto at the Center of the World: Chungking Mansion, Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Google Scholar
Mathews, Gordon (2015). ‘Taking Copies from China Past Customs: Routines, Risks, and the Possibility of Catastrophe’. Journal of Borderlands Studies 30 (3): 423–435.Google Scholar
Mathews, Gordon, Ribeiro, Gustavo Lins, and Vega, Carlos Alba, eds. (2012). Globalization from Below: The World’s Other Economy. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mathews, Gordon, Dan Lin, Linessa, and Yang, Yang (2017). The World in Guangzhou: Africans and Other Foreigners in South China’s Global Marketplace. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Google Scholar
Meehan, Patrick and Lawn Dan, Seng (2023). ‘Brokered Rule: Militias, Drugs, and Borderland Governance in the Myanmar–China Borderlands’. Journal of Contemporary Asia 53 (4): 561–583.Google Scholar
Mertha, Andrew (2005). The Politics of Piracy: Intellectual Property in Contemporary China. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Ming Pao 明報. 28 October 2016.Google Scholar
Møller, Henrik Kloppenborg (2021). ‘Borderlines, Livelihood, and Ethnicity in the Yunnan–Myanmar Borderlands: A Rohingya Jade Trader’s Narratives’. In Yü, Dan Smyer and Dean, Karin, eds., Yunnan–Burma–Bengal Corridor Geographies. London: Routledge, 122–142.Google Scholar
Naim, Moises (2005). Illicit: How Smugglers, Traffickers, and Copycats Are Hijacking the Global Economy. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Neuwirth, Robert (2012). Stealth of Nations: The Global Rise of the Informal Economy. New York: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Newman, David and Paasi, Anssi (1998). ‘Fences and Neighbors in the Postmodern World: Boundary Narratives in Political Geography’. Progress in Human Geography 22 (2): 186–207.Google Scholar
Ngo, Tak-Wing (2008). ‘Rent-Seeking and Economic Governance in the Structural Nexus of Corruption in China’. Crime, Law and Social Change 49 (1): 27–44.Google Scholar
Ngo, Tak-Wing (2015). ‘Asia and the Historicity of the Market Economy’. Verge: Studies in Global Asias 1 (1): 44–50.Google Scholar
Ngo, Tak-Wing (2018). ‘Overcoming Institutional Voids during Market Transition: Private Sector Financing in China’. Sociétés Politiques Compares 44 (janvier-avril): 1–20.Google Scholar
Ngo, Tak-Wing (2023). ‘Informal Governance in China’s Borders’. In Ergenc, Ceren and Goodman, David S. G., eds., Handbook on Local Governance in China: Structures, Variations, and Innovations. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 127–137.Google Scholar
Ngo, Tak-Wing and Eva, P. W. Hung (2019). ‘The Political Economy of Border Checkpoints in Shadow Exchanges’. Journal of Contemporary Asia 49 (2): 178–192.Google Scholar
Ngo, Tak-Wing and Eva, P. W. Hung (2020). ‘Introduction: Informal Exchanges and Contending Connectivity along the Shadow Silk Roads’. In Hung, Eva P. W. and Ngo, Tak-Wing, eds., Shadow Exchanges along the New Silk Roads. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 15–36.Google Scholar
Nicita, Alessandro and Razo, Carlos (2021). ‘China: The Rise of a Trade Titan’. 27 April, UNCTAD. https://unctad.org/news/china-rise-trade-titan.Google Scholar
Njikam, Ousmanou and Tchouassi, Gérard (2011). ‘Women in Informal Cross-Border Trade: Empirical Evidence from Cameroon’. International Journal of Economics and Finance 3 (3): 202–213.Google Scholar
Nordstrom, Carolyn (2000). ‘Shadows and Sovereigns’. Theory, Culture & Society 17 (4): 35–54.Google Scholar
Nordstrom, Carolyn (2011). ‘Extra-Legality’. Middle East Report 261. https://merip.org/2011/11/extra-legality/.Google Scholar
Ødegaard, Cecilie V. (2008). ‘Informal Trade, Contrabando and Prosperous Socialities in Arequipa, Peru’. Journal of Anthropology 73 (2): 241–266.Google Scholar
OECD/EUIPO (2016). Trade in Counterfeit and Pirated Goods: Mapping the Economic Impact. Paris: OECD.Google Scholar
OECD/ILO (2019). Tackling Vulnerability in the Informal Economy, Development Centre Studies. Paris: OECD. http://doi.org/10.1787/939b7bcd-en.Google Scholar
Olivier de Sardan, Jean-Pierre (2015). ‘Practical Norms: Informal Regulations within Public Bureaucracies (in Africa and Beyond)’. In Herdt, Tom De and Olivier de Sardan, Jean-Pierre, eds., Real Governance and Practical Norms in Sub-Sahara Africa: The Game of the Rules. London: Routledge, 19–62.Google Scholar
Ong, Aihwa (2004). ‘The Chinese Axis: Zoning Technologies and Variegated Sovereignty’. Journal of East Asian Studies 4, 69–96.Google Scholar
Pahl, R. E. (1988). ‘Some Remarks on Informal Work, Social Polarization and the Social Structure’. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 12 (2): 247–267.Google Scholar
Parker, Noel and Adler-Nissen, Rebecca (2012). ‘Picking and Choosing the “Sovereign” Border: A Theory of Changing State Bordering Practices’. Geopolitics 17 (4): 773–796.Google Scholar
Parker, Noel and Vaughan-Williams, Nick et al. (2009). ‘Lines in the Sand? Towards an Agenda for Critical Border Studies’. Geopolitics 14 (3): 582–587.Google Scholar
Patrick, Stewart (2011). Weak Links: Fragile States, Global Threats, and International Security. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pengbai Xinwen 澎湃新闻. 25 July 2018.Google Scholar
Perry, Guillerom E., Maloney, William F., Arias, Omar S. et al. (2007). Informality: Exit and Exclusion. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Plümmer, Franziska (2022). Rethinking Authority in China’s Border Regime. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.Google Scholar
Pohit, Sanjib and Taneja, Nisha (2000). ‘India’s Informal Trade with Bangladesh and Nepal: A Qualitative Assessment’. New Delhi: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations Working Paper No. 58.Google Scholar
Portes, Alejandro and Bach, Robert L. (1985). Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Portes, Alejandro and Sassen-Koob, Saskia (1987). ‘Making It Underground: Comparative Material on the Informal Sector in Western Market Economies’. American Journal of Sociology 93 (1): 30–61.Google Scholar
Priest, George L. (1994). ‘The Ambiguous Moral Foundations of the Underground Economy’. The Yale Law Journal 10321 (8): 2259–2288.Google Scholar
ProPublica. 31 July 2017; 12 July 2023Google Scholar
Reh, Christine (2012). ‘Informal Politics: The Normative Challenge’. In Christiansen, Thomas and Neuhold, Christine, eds., International Handbook on Informal Governance. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 65–84.Google Scholar
Reporter, The 報道者. 12 July 2020; 9 January 2023.Google Scholar
Rumford, Chris (2012). ‘Towards a Multiperspectival Study of Borders’. Geopolitics 17 (4): 887–902.Google Scholar
Sassen, Saskia (2006). ‘Toward an Alternative Narrative about Globalization: Global Cities and Survival Circuits’. Cahiers du Genre 40 (1): 67–89.Google Scholar
Scheele, Judith (2012). Smugglers and Saints of the Sahara: Regional Connectivity in the Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schneider, Friedrich and Williams, Colin C. (2013). The Shadow Economy. London: Institute of Economic Affairs.Google Scholar
Schröder, Philipp (2020). ‘Business 2.0: Kyrgyz Middlemen in Guangzhou’. Central Asian Survey 39 (1): 116–134.Google Scholar
Sharman, J. C. (2011). The Money Laundry: Regulating Criminal Finance in the Global Economy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Shelley, Louise I. (2014). Dirty Entanglements: Corruption, Crime, and Terrorism. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Shelley, Louise I. (2018). Dark Commerce: How a New Illicit Economy Is Threatening Our Future. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sheppard, Eric (2002). ‘The Spaces and Times of Globalization: Place, Scale, Networks, and Positionality’. Economic Geography 78 (3): 307–330.Google Scholar
Zhenzhong, Si, Regnier-Davies, Jenelle, and Scott, Steffanie (2018). ‘Food Safety in Urban China: Perceptions and Coping Strategies of Residents in Nanjing’. China Information 32 (3): 377–399.Google Scholar
Smart, Alan and Lin, George (2004). ‘Border Management and Growth Coalitions in the Hong Kong Transborder Region’. Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power 11 (3): 377–396.Google Scholar
Smart, Alan and Smart, Josephine (2008). ‘Time-Space Punctuation: Hong Kong’s Border Regime and Limits on Mobility’. Pacific Affairs 81 (2): 175–193.Google Scholar
Smith, Philip M. (1997). ‘Assessing the Size of the Underground Economy: The Statistics Canada Perspective’. In Lippert, Owen and Walker, Michael, eds., The Underground Economy: Global Evidence of Its Size and Impact. Vancouver: The Fraser Institute, 11–36.Google Scholar
Sohn, Christophe (2016). ‘Navigating Borders’ Multiplicity: The Critical Potential of Assemblage’. Area 48 (2): 183–189.Google Scholar
Spector, Regine A. (2017). Order at the Bazaar: Power and Trade in Central Asia. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Strange, Susan (1996). The Retreat of the State: The Diffusions of Power in the World Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Xiaobo, Su (2018). ‘Fragmented Sovereignty and the Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Northern Burma’. Political Geography 63: 20–30.Google Scholar
Sugita, Yoneyuki (2019). ‘China’s Food Safety Problems and the Establishment of a Dual Economy: A Case of Vegetables’. In Teo, Victor and Yoon, Sungwon, eds., Illicit Industries and China’s Shadow Economy: Challenges and Prospects for Global Governance and Human Security. London: Routledge, 65–77.Google Scholar
Sur, Malini (2013). ‘Through Metal Fences: Material Mobility and the Politics of Transnationality at Borders’. Mobilities 8 (1): 70–89.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Tomo (2007a). ‘Accountics: Impacts of Internationally Standardized Accounting on the Japanese Socio-economy’. Accounting, Organizations and Society 32: 263–301.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Tomo (2007b). ‘A History of Japanese Accounting Reforms as a Microfoundation of the Democratic Socio-economy: Accountics Part II’. Accounting, Organizations and Society 32: 543–575.Google Scholar
Tagliacozzo, Eric (2005). Secret Trades, Porous Borders Smuggling and States along a Southeast Asian Frontier, 1865–1915. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Teo, Victor and Yoon, Sungwon (2019). ‘Illicit Industries and China’s Shadow Economy: Challenges and Prospects for Global Governance and Human Security’. In Victor Teo and Sungwon Yoon, eds., Illicit Industries and China’s Shadow Economy: Challenges and Prospects for Global Governance and Human Security. London: Routledge, 1–28.Google Scholar
Thai, Philip (2018). China’s War on Smuggling: Law, Economic Life, and the Making of the Modern State, 1842–1965. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Thoumi, Francisco E. (2005). ‘The Numbers Game: Letʼs All Guess the Size of the Illegal Drug Industry!’ Journal of Drug Issues 35 (Winter): 185–200.Google Scholar
Tienda, Marta and Raijman, Rebecca (2000). ‘Immigrants’ Income Packaging and Invisible Labor Force Activity’. Social Science Quarterly 81 (1): 291–310.Google Scholar
Tsai, Kellee S. (2002). Back-Alley Banking: Private Entrepreneurs in China. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
United States Chamber of Commerce (2016). Measuring the Magnitude of Global Counterfeiting. Washington, DC: Global Intellectual Property Center.Google Scholar
United States Trade Representative (2011). Review of Notorious Markets. https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/gsp/speeches/reports/2011/Notorious%20Markets%20List%20FINAL.pdf. Accessed 1 October 2022.Google Scholar
UNODC (2018). Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants. New York: United Nations Publication, Sales No. E.18.IV.9.Google Scholar
Van Schendel, Willem (2005). ‘Spaces of Engagement: How Borderlands, Illegal Flows and Territorial States Interlock’. In van Schendel, Willem and Abraham, Itty, eds., Illicit Flows and Criminal Things: States, Borders and the Other Side of Globalization. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 38–68.Google Scholar
Van Schendel, Willem (2020). ‘Fragmented Sovereignty and Unregulated Flows: The Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar Corridor’. In Hung, Eva P. W. and Ngo, Tak-Wing, eds., Shadow Exchanges along the New Silk Road. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 37–73.Google Scholar
Varese, Federico (2015). ‘Underground Banking and Corruption’. In Rose-Ackerman, Susan and Lagunes, Paul, eds., Greed, Corruption, and the Modern State: Essays in Political Economy. Cheltenham and Northampton: Edward Elgar, 336–358.Google Scholar
Waldinger, Roger and Lapp, Michael (1993). ‘Back to the Sweatshop or Ahead to the Informal Sector?’ International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 17 (1): 6–29.Google Scholar
Walker, Andrew (1999). The Legend of the Golden Boat: Regulation, Trade, and Traders in the Borderlands of Laos, China, Thailand and Burma. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.Google Scholar
Walther, Olivier (2009). ‘A Mobile Idea of Space. Traders, Patrons and the Cross-Border Economy in Sahelian Africa’. Journal of Borderlands Studies 24 (1): 34–46.Google Scholar
Wang, Peng (2017). The Chinese Mafia: Organized Crime, Corruption, and Extra-Legal Protection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wank, David L. (2009). ‘Local State Takeover as Multiple Rent Seeking in Private Business’. In Ngo, Tak-Wing and Wu, Yongping, eds., Rent Seeking in China. London: Routledge, 79–97.Google Scholar
Wedeman, Andrew (2022). ‘The Dynamics and Trajectory of Corruption in Contemporary China’. China Review 22 (2): 21–48.Google Scholar
Williams, Phil (1997). ‘Transnational Organized Crime and National and International Security: A Global Assessment”. In Gamba, Virginia, ed., Society under Siege: Crime, Violence and Illegal Weapons. South Africa: Institute for Security Studies.Google Scholar
Wong, Rebecca W. Y. (2021). ‘Shadow Operations in Wildlife Trade under China’s Belt and Road Initiative’. China Information 35 (2): 201–218.Google Scholar
Woods, Kevin (2019). ‘Rubber out of the Ashes: Locating Chinese Agribusiness Investments in “Arm Sovereignties” in the Myanmar–China Borderlands’. Territory, Politics, Governance 7 (1): 79–95.Google Scholar
World Tourism Alliance (2019). WTA Data Analysis Report of China’s Inbound Tourism. Hangzhou.Google Scholar
Yan, Qingmin 阎庆民 and Jianhua, Li 李建华 (2014). 中国影子银行监管研究 (A Study on the Supervision of Shadow Banking in China). Beijing 北京: 中国人民大学出版社.Google Scholar
Zhang, Shu Guang (2001). Economic Cold War: American’s Embargo against China and the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949–1963. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Zook, Matthew A. (2003). ‘Underground Globalization: Mapping the Space of Flows of the Internet Adult Industry’. Environment and Planning A 35: 1261–1286.Google Scholar
Zucman, Gabriel (2013). ‘The Missing Wealth of Nations: Are Europe and the U.S. Net Debtors or Net Creditors?’ The Quarterly Journal of Economics 128 (3): 1321–1364.Google Scholar