A Brief History of Forensic Authorship Analysis

It can be hard to declare the origin of any practical discipline as the practice will almost certainly have been occurring before it was noticed, labelled, and written about. In the English-speaking world, it is common to point to Jan Reference SvartvikSvartvik’s (1968) short study on the language of The Evans’ Statement with its subtitle that coined the term ‘forensic linguistics’. Svartvik sets out linguistic grounds for the contention that Timothy Evans’ apparent confession to the murder of his wife and baby daughter was in fact more likely authored by an interviewing police officer. Evans was hanged on 9 March 1950, convicted of the murder of his daughter (but not his wife). Just three years later, John Christie, another occupant at 10 Rillington Place, confessed to the murder of his wife, and was subsequently shown to be a serial murderer. This led to a re-evaluation of Evans’ conviction, a number of media campaigns and appeals, and eventually Public Inquiries examining the circumstances of the Evans case. Svartvik’s analysis contributed to the Public Inquiry held at the Royal Courts of Justice between 22 November and 21 January 1966 – and it is this Inquiry that finally led to Evans’ posthumous pardon in October 1966.

Svartvik first discusses the issues of the transcription of Evans’ spoken statement in the context that Evans has been assessed as having a ‘mental age’ of ten to eleven and was largely illiterate, and sets out linguistic structures that he believes were typical of Evans’ language and that would persist beyond the transcription conventions of two separate police officers. Svartvik aims to be ‘maximally objective: in our case this means that the features can be unambiguously stated to be open to outside inspection, and that they can be quantified and subjected to significance testing’ (Reference SvartvikSvartvik, 1968, p. 24). He notes that this restricts him to high-frequency features, which in turn ‘immediately rules out lexical features’ (p. 25), and comments that there is no ‘background material’, no comparison corpus on which he can rely. He does, however, compare Evans’ statements with that taken from Christie in his eventual prosecution.

As well as trying to be maximally objective, Svartvik in a footnote points out that his analysis is based firmly in linguistic research in syntax. Given his constraints, Svartvik focusses on clauses and clause types and cites the literature to support the typology he uses. Specifically, Svartvik examines the difference in distribution of relative clauses with mobile relators, where the subject can occur before or after the relator (e.g. then and also can occur as I then or then I, or I also or also I, etc.) and also elliptic subject linking clauses (which have no overt subject). He compares the statements compiled by the two police officers and creates comparisons within the statements, between sections that compromise Evans and sections that do not contain confessional material. He notes that in the crucial disputed sections of these statements, there is a significant increase in mobile relator clauses and ellipsed subject clauses associated with the police language. Svartvik states early in the report that he ‘cannot hope to arrive at any firm legal conclusions; the interest of [his] study is primarily linguistic and only secondarily of a legal nature’ (p. 19), and his conclusion is thus that of a correlation between ‘the observed linguistic discrepancies’ (p. 46) with the contested sections of the statements.

After Svartvik’s contribution to forensic authorship analysis in the late 1960s, the next reports of casework in forensic authorship analysis come in the 1970s through the work of Hannes Kniffka (reported in Reference KniffkaKniffka 1981, Reference Kniffka1990, Reference Kniffka1996, Reference Kniffka2007), which reflect his work in the German language. Kniffka reports work in several cases drawing on his understandings of sociolinguistics and of contact linguistics. Of five early cases he reports from the 1970s, two are reports of disputed meaning and three are reports of disputed authorship. These relate to disputes over an article in the press, minutes of a meeting, and a particular edition of a company newsletter (Reference KniffkaKniffka, 2007). Kniffka does not provide full details of his methods for analysis in these cases, but he does indicate the type of analysis in which he engages. For example, in the case about who wrote the edition of a company newspaper, he writes of analysis:

This description suggests a broader scope in developing authorial features from a text than that applied by Svartvik, and that Kniffka brought a fuller range of linguistic knowledge and analyses to bear in this case, and presumably in other authorship cases of the time.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Malcolm Coulthard in the UK became involved in a series of cases which questioned the authenticity of a number of confession statements associated with serious crimes in and around the city of Birmingham. Throughout the 1980s, a regional police unit, the West Midlands Serious Crime Squad (and later the Regional Crime Squad), came under increasing pressure as it became apparent that they were involved in serious mismanagement, corruption, and demonstrated fabrication of evidence including in witness statements. In 1987, there was a turning-point case in which Paul Dandy was acquitted on the basis that a confession statement was shown to have been fabricated. The evidence for the defence came from the then novel Electro-Static Detection Analysis or ESDA technique, which is used to reveal microscopic divots and troughs left in the surface of paper by writing on it, irrespective of whether any ink stain was present. In the case of Paul Dandy, an ESDA analysis showed a one-line admission had been added to his otherwise innocuous statement, and the court released him on the basis of this evidence, but not before he spent eight months on remand in solitary confinement (Reference KayeKaye, 1991). This practice of adding words to a statement to turn it into a confession became known in UK policing circles as ‘verballing’ and was informally acknowledged to have been a common practice of the Serious Crime Squad. A difficulty for many appeals, however, was that the original pads on which statements had been written had been destroyed. This meant that the ESDA technique could not be used and that all that remained was the language itself.

Coulthard gave linguistic evidence at a series of high-profile appeals, including the appeals of the Birmingham Six, who were convicted in 1975 of setting bombs for the Irish Republican Army (IRA) which killed 21 people and injured 182; the Bridgewater Four, who were convicted of killing twelve-year-old paperboy Carl Bridgewater by shooting him in the head after he apparently disturbed a burglary; and also at the trial of Ronnie Bolden in 1989. The Birmingham Six achieved successful appeals in 1991, the Bridgewater Four’s convictions were quashed in 1997, and Bolden was acquitted. After the Bolden trial, the West Midlands Serious Crime Squad was disbanded. There were a number of other less high-profile cases from the West Midlands Serious Crime Squad and the Regional Crime Squad, to which Coulthard also contributed. He brought some of these cases to a newly formed forensic linguistic research group at the University of Birmingham. This was attended by a group of academics and PhD students including myself, Janet Cotterill, Frances Rock, Chris Heffer, Alison Johnson, Sue Blackwell, and, briefly, John Olsson. At these sessions, alongside more typical research presentations, case materials were considered, analysed, and discussed and some of the case analyses made it into Coulthard’s work in investigations and in court.

In addition to these West Midlands cases, Coulthard was involved in the successful 1998 appeal of Derek Bentley’s conviction. His analysis of Bentley’s confession was reported in the first volume of the International Journal of Forensic Linguistics, now renamed Speech, Language and the Law (Reference CoulthardCoulthard, 1994). Coulthard’s analysis uses a feature similar to that identified by Svartvik – the mobile relator – and Coulthard shows, by using corpus methods, how the I then form, which was present in the Bentley statement, was more typical in the police register than the then I form, which was more typically used by the general population – as represented by the (then impressive) 1.5 million words of the COBUILD Spoken English Corpus. This finding matched Reference SvartvikSvartvik (1968, Table 6, p. 34), where the same pre-positioned subject in I then appears to mark that the statement has been authored by the police officer.

Coulthard’s use of corpora to understand base rates of a feature in a general population is a mark of significant progress over Svartvik – to whom the technological innovation of large, computerised corpora was unavailable, and who bemoaned the lack of ability to make proper between- and within-individual comparisons. Indeed, Svartvik notes that ‘[f]or a proper evaluation of the results of [his] study it would be desirable to have a better knowledge of the linguistic phenomena than we now have’ (Reference SvartvikSvartvik, 1968, p. 39). He then goes on to speculate on the effect of emotional and non-emotional content on this style feature:

Svartvik is forced to rely on internal comparisons within Evans’ confessions and external comparison with the case materials of Christie’s confessions in order to provide contrast and background information. The contrast between Svartvik’s approach of using a small set of highly similar within-genre texts, and Coulthard’s approach of using a significantly sized population sample of texts across genres remains a twin-track approach used today to understand the distribution and distinctiveness of authorship features. As we shall see in what follows, each has its strengths and weaknesses.

Svartvik and Coulthard, however, have plenty in common in their approaches. They both focus on verballing in disputed confessions, and this introduces advantages and disadvantages in their analyses. The suspect witness statement of its time was a well-defined genre, and as Reference SvartvikSvartvik (1968) discusses, this introduces two specific issues: the role of the police officer as amanuensis and the introduction of features of their habitual style, and the fact itself of the creation of a written text from the distinctive style of spoken answers. It is through this fog of transformation that Svartvik and Coulthard are attempting to identify the voice, the authorship, of the defendants in their cases. On some occasions, as in Coulthard’s analysis of the Bentley confession, it was sufficient to determine that the text could not be verbatim Bentley, and that it must have been the product of a dialogue rather than a monologue from Bentley. These findings were contrary to the sworn statements of police officers in the original trial and thus were considered grounds for appeal. This, however, represents a rather indirect form of authorship analysis. On other occasions, the authorship analysis for both Coulthard and Svartvik is more direct. Thus Svartvik suggests that ‘substandard usage’, such as Evans’ double negative ‘“She never said no more about it”’ (Reference SvartvikSvartvik, 1968, p. 22), is probably a trace of his spontaneous speech in the statements. In both cases, however, the nature of the task addressed and the texts analysed are working against strong, direct conclusions of authorship.

An important and revealing but ultimately fruitless detour in the history of forensic authorship analysis was the invention and application of cumulative sum (CUSUM) analysis. Reference MortonMorton (1991) set out a graphical and apparently general technique for spotting the language of one author inserted in a text written by another. The plots comprised two values derived from a text plotted in parallel sentence by sentence – typically the values were sentence length and the number of two- and three-letter words in that sentence, although Morton, and later Reference FarringdonFarringdon (1996), experimented with other measures (see Figure 1). An insertion of an external author was apparently revealed in a divergence of the two lines on the graph. The CUSUM technique was initially successfully used by defence teams in multiple cases including the appeal in London of Tommy McCrossen in July 1991, the trial in November 1991 of Frank Beck in Leicester, the trial of Vincent Connell in Dublin in December 1991, and the pardon for Nicky Kelly from the Irish government in April 1992 (Reference Holmes and TweedieHolmes and Tweedie, 1995, p. 20). The technique ‘demonstrated’ that these confession statements had been subjected to verballing and, in the McCrossen case at least, convinced the Court of Appeal that this was a wrongful conviction.

Figure 1

Example CUSUM chart reproduced from Reference GrantGrant (1992, p. 5) erroneously showing insertions in a text by a second author at sentences 6 and 17

Such cases quickly attracted media attention and academic analysis which wholly discredited the technique. Reference Holmes and TweedieHolmes and Tweedie’s (1995) review of the evidence cites no fewer than five published academic studies between 1992 and 1994, all of which find the technique seriously wanting (Reference CanterCanter, 1992; Reference de Haan and Schilsde Haan and Schils, 1993; Reference HardcastleHardcastle, 1993; Reference Hilton and HolmesHilton and Holmes, 1993; Reference Sanford, Aked, Moxey and MullinSanford et al., 1994). Errors of misattribution and missed attribution were easily demonstrated. It was shown how the graph itself could be manipulated and when visual comparisons were replaced with statistical methods, no significant effects could be found to uphold the claims of CUSUM advocates. In spite of this the legacy of CUSUM in the UK lasted a decade longer. By 1998, the UK Crown Prosecutors (CPS) made a statement of official guidance that forensic linguistic evidence of authorship was unreliable, that it should not be used by prosecutors, and that it should be vigorously attacked if used by defence. This guidance was drafted to take in all forms of linguistic evidence, not just CUSUM–based authorship analysis. It was only during the preparation of the 2005 prosecution of Dhiren Barot that this guidance was narrowed to pick out only CUSUM as a demonstrably bad technique for forensic authorship analysis. This was a result of Janet Cotterill and me pointing out to the prosecutors that the negative guidance remained on the books and might undermine the case against Barot.

Even before Coulthard was untangling the confession statements written by the West Midlands Serious Crime Squad and other disreputable British police officers, forensic authorship analysis was developing in the USA. Richard Reference Bailey, Ager, Knowles and SmithBailey (1979) presented a paper at a symposium at Aston University held in April 1978 on ‘Computer-Aided Literary and Linguistic Research’. In his paper called ‘Authorship Attribution in a Forensic Setting’, Bailey addressed the authorship of a number of statements made by Patty Hearst, who was both a kidnap victim and also went on to join her kidnappers in a spree of armed robberies. Bailey’s analysis was an early stylometric analysis – he used twenty-four statistical measures, some of which were extracted from the texts by newly written software routines called EYEBALL (Reference RossRoss, 1977). It seems Bailey’s analysis was not used in court but may have provided support to the prosecution legal team. It also seems likely that Bailey’s contribution was the same as that presented at the 1978 Aston symposium. Further to the Hearst case, Bailey also mentions in the Aston paper that he was aware of two subsequent US trials where authorship analysis was not admitted as evidence.

It thus appears that the earliest courtroom discussion of an authorship analysis in the United States was in Brisco v. VFE Corp. and related cross-actions in 1984. This case involved no fewer than five linguists: Gerald McMenamin, Wally Chafe, Ed Finegan, Richard Bailey, and Fred Brengelman (Reference FineganFinegan, 1990).Footnote ³ McMenamin provided an initial report for VFE (and its owners, Cottrell) and attributed a libellous letter to Brisco, using a method he later refers to as forensic stylistics (Reference McMenaminMcMenamin, 1993). Chafe was then hired by VFE/Cottrell and affirmed that he believed that both McMenamin’s methods and his conclusion were good. Finegan was then hired by Brisco’s lawyers and his report was critical of the VFE’s linguists’ methods; he was subsequently backed up by Bailey, who examined all the available reports and supported Finegan’s critiques. Finally, in view of the two critical reports of the original authorship analysis, VFE/Cottrell conducted a further deposition on the evidence with Brengelman as a third linguist for them, the fifth overall on this case.

The outcome of the Brisco case is somewhat confusing. McMenamin certainly testified at trial and his evidence went unrebutted. The fact that he went unchallenged, however, appears to be because after Brengelman’s deposition and before the trial, the issue of authorship was agreed to be settled. Additionally, it appears that the whole trial, including McMenamin’s evidence, was ‘vacated’ on grounds separate from the authorship evidence – this means the case was made void, as if the trial had never occurred. Finegan writes in personal communication that ‘The judgment in the case – which included ascribing the authorship of the defamatory document as established by a linguist’s expert testimony – was vacated subsequently by the very same trial judge, who later reinstated it, only to have it subsequently vacated by the California Appellate Court,’ and also that then ‘aspects of the case were appealed to the California Supreme Court, which declined hearing it’. McMenamin’s testimony in this case seems therefore to remain vacated and to have a status akin to that of Schrödinger’s cat – it was both the first instance (that I can find) of a linguist giving authorship evidence in an American court, and also, it never happened.

Irrespective of the status of McMenamin’s Schrödinger’s testimony, it is clear that he (along with others) went on to provide linguistic evidence of authorship in a number of cases in the late 1980s and 1990s and through to the present day.Footnote ⁴ Details of his approach and analysis methods are provided in two books (Reference McMenaminMcMenamin, 1993, Reference McMenmain2002). Forensic Stylistics in 1993 may be the first book specifically on forensic authorship analysis, and in it McMenamin reports that his approach relies on the basic theoretical idea from stylistics. This is that in every spoken or written utterance an individual makes a linguistic selection from a group of choices, and also, that in making such selections over time, the individual may habitually prefer one stylistic option over others. His method is to derive sets of features from each text he examines, often starting with the anonymous or disputed texts, and then demonstrating if these features mark the author’s habitual stylistic selections in known texts by suspect authors. This stylistics basis for authorship analysis was also (somewhat unwittingly) applied as an approach in what is still one of the most high-profile authorship analysis cases worldwide – the investigation into the writings of the Unabomber.

Jim Fitzgerald, as a Supervisory Special Agent in the FBI, reports visiting Roger Shuy at Georgetown University in the summer of 1995 to hear Shuy’s profile of The Industrial Society and Its Future, the then anonymous Unabomber manifesto (Reference FitzgeraldFitzgerald, 2017). Shuy suggested that the writer of the manifesto was a forty- to sixty-year-old, that they were a native English speaker raised in the Chicago area, and that they had been a reader of the Chicago Tribune. As reported, Shuy’s opinion was also that the writer was likely white, but he didn’t rule out that he might be African-American or have been exposed to African-American Vernacular English (AAVE). Excepting this last hedging about the AAVE influence, Shuy’s profile proved remarkably accurate.

The publication of the manifesto in the Washington Post and in the New York Times in 1995 resulted in the recognition by members of Theodore Kaczynski’s family that the themes and the writing style in the manifesto were similar to his other writings. The family provided letters and documents received from Kaczynski, and this enabled Fitzgerald and the FBI to write a ‘Comparative Authorship Project’ affidavit which compared the anonymous documents with the letters from Kaczynski. The affidavit was used to obtain a search warrant for Kaczynski’s remote Montana cabin. The analysis was based on more than six hundred comparisons not only of the writer’s selections of words and phrases, which were ‘virtually identical word-for-word matches of entire sentences’ (Reference FitzgeraldFitzgerald, 2017, p. 487), but also many of which were ‘somewhat similar’ and ‘very similar’ across the two document sets. Fitzgerald at that time claimed no expertise in linguistics and simply presented the points in common.

In the subsequent legal challenge to the analysis, Robin Lakoff, acting for the defence, argued that these co-selections of stylistic choices were insufficient evidence to amount to ‘probable cause’ to support the search warrant. In response to Lakoff, the prosecution hired Don Foster, a literary linguistics expert, who defended Fitzgerald’s analysis (Reference FosterFoster, 2000). The final judgement in this dispute was that the language analysis provided sufficient evidence to amount to probable cause, and thus the search was upheld as legal. With this finding, the considerable further written material and bomb-making materials found at Kaczynski’s cabin could be admitted at trial. In January 1998, in the face of this overwhelming evidence and as part of a plea bargain to avoid the death penalty, Kaczynski pleaded guilty to the charges against him and was sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole.

Fitzgerald’s work is clearly an authorship analysis and an analysis of the language evidence. That it is similar to McMenamin’s stylistic approach seems to be a coincidence and may be because Fitzgerald drew on his behavioural analysis training. Behavioural analysts and psychological profilers examine crime scene behaviours to produce profiles and to link crimes committed by the same offender. In case linkage work, behaviours are coded as selections within potential repertoires of choices required to achieve different crimes (Reference Woodhams, Hollin and BullWoodhams et al., 2007). Thus, in certain sexual crimes, controlling a victim is a required aim, but this might be achieved by verbal coercion, by physical threats, by tying up the victim, or by other means. The repeated co-selection of behaviours within these repertoires can be seen as evidence that a pair of unsolved crimes may have the same offender.Footnote ⁵ To a degree, Fitzgerald’s analysis is unusual in comparison with the analyses by the linguists Svartvik, Kniffka, Coulthard, and McMenamin. Most expert linguists would have been unlikely to comment on common content or themes across the queried and known documents, seeing this as beyond their expertise. Similarly, as linguists they would probably also have been less interested in linguistic content that was merely very similar or somewhat similar. The word-for-word matches of entire sentences, however, would still be considered strong linguistic evidence of authorship, and the idea of a set of linguistic choices identifying a specific author certainly has traction (Reference LarnerLarner, 2014; Reference WrightWright, 2017) and is referred to by Reference CoulthardCoulthard (2004) as a co-selection set.

Since the turn of the century, the growth in authorship cases has grown considerably. Perhaps building on Kniffka’s early work, the German federal police (Bundeskriminalamt (BKA)) have uniquely maintained a forensic linguistic unit within the official forensic science division. Within the UK, a number of high-profile forensic authorship analyses have been taken to court, and in R v. Hodgson (2009), Coulthard’s evidence of text messaging was appealed and his approach and opinions were upheld (Reference Coulthard, Johnson and WrightCoulthard et al., 2017). There have been many more cases where authorship evidence has been provided for criminal prosecution or defence but not reached the courts. This year, a full forty-three years after Richard Bailey first spoke at Aston University on forensic authorship analysis, the Aston Institute for Forensic Linguistics held a symposium on ‘International Approaches to Forensic Linguistic Casework’ at which there were discussions of cases from Australia, Canada, Greece, India, Indonesia, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey as well as from Germany, the UK and the USA.Footnote ⁶

A Taxonomy of Authorship Analysis

The focus in this Section is on the structure of authorship questions and the tasks which are carried out. As we have seen from its history, authorship analysis is not a unified endeavour and authorship analysis tasks vary according to the specifics of the case. As will be seen, the general term authorship analysis is preferred and used in contrast to authorship attribution as in many cases neither the aim nor the outcome of the linguistic analysis is an identification of an individual. Such analyses can roughly be broken down into three principal tasks, each of which can contain a number of sub-tasks as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2

 Taxonomy of authorship analysis problems

In Figure 2, the abbreviations Q-documents and K-documents are used to indicate Queried/Questioned documents and Known documents, respectively.

Comparative authorship analysis (CAA) can be roughly split into closed-set problems, in which there is a limited, known set of candidate authors, and open-set problems, where the number of candidate authors is unknown or very large. Closed-set problems are best classified in terms of how many candidate authors there are, from binary problems, to small, medium, and large sets of possible authors. The size of the set of candidate authors will to a great extent determine the method applied and the chances of success. Clearly defining a small set as five or fewer and a large set as twenty or more is an arbitrary distinction born out of practice, but it seems to work as a rule of thumb. Open-set problems are often also referred to as verification tasks, but in forensic work this would also include exclusion tasks. Verification tasks also occur when all documents are in fact by unknown authors and the task is to determine whether one anonymous text has the same author as a set of further anonymous texts. In problems with very many candidate authors, approaches are very different, and here are referred to as author search problems.

In comparative authorship analyses which are forensic, the question as to who defines the set of candidate authors is critical and different from other contexts. Scholarship in biblical, literary, and other forms of academic authorship attribution can allow the researcher to consider many types of evidence, and the scholar may engage in historical research, take into account factors such as inks or types of paper, or examine the content in terms of the psychology or opinions of the writer. All these extralinguistic factors may help determine a set of candidate authors in a specific case. When Fitzgerald investigated the Unabomber manifesto, and with his training as a behavioural analyst, he had no reason to ignore common thematic content between the known and anonymous texts or the extralinguistic forms of evidence in the case. Indeed, it was his duty to identify and evaluate all possible forms of evidence to contribute to the search for the offender. However, generally a linguist’s expert role is separate from that of a general investigator, and it is the police (or other investigators) who define the scope of the closed set. This also makes the police responsible for the evidence that supports the contention that there is indeed a closed set. When this occurs, this can then allow the linguist to write a conditional opinion, constraining their responsibility. For example, it might be possible to write that of this set of authors there is stronger evidence that author A wrote the queried text than for any of the other candidate authors.

Verification tasks (and the reciprocal exclusion tasks) occur when there might be a small set of known documents (K-documents) and a single queried or anonymous document (Q-document). The issue is whether a single Q-document has the same author as the K-documents, and these cases are structurally harder than classification tasks. One problem with these tasks is that analyses tend to express an idea of stylistic distance. This notion of distance is in fact metaphorical and there is no principled measure of how close or distant in style any two texts are, and no well-defined threshold that makes two texts close enough or far enough apart to include them or exclude them as having been written by the same author. The hardest verification task of all is one in which there is a single Q-text and a single K-text. One reason for this is that in any verification task, the K-texts have to be assumed to be representative of the writing style of the author. Although this is an assumption without foundation, it is a necessary assumption to set up a pattern of features against which the Q-text is compared. The assumption can be strengthened by the number and diversity of K-texts, but when there is just a single K-text, this is a very weak assumption indeed.

Identification of precursory authorship includes plagiarism enquiries and identification of textual borrowing that may contribute to allegations of copyright infringement. Such cases require examination of the relationships between texts, and identification and interpretation of whether shared phrases and shared vocabulary might arise independently. Such enquiries rely on the idea of ‘uniqueness of utterance’ (Reference CoulthardCoulthard, 2004) that accidental, exact textual reproduction between unrelated documents is highly unlikely. They are included here as a form of authorship analysis as it is often the case that the matter at question is whether a particular author really can claim a text as their own, or whether it was originally authored by someone else.

Sociolinguistic profiling is a form of authorship analysis that takes a different approach. Rather than focussing on a comparison between individuals, it focusses on social and identity variables in order to group language users. The range of possible variables is potentially enormous and has been subject to varying degrees of study, including with regard to issues discussed below of the relationships between possible essential characteristics and performed identities.Footnote ⁷ Reference NiniNini (2015) provides a survey of the more common variables including gender, age, education, and social class, with gender being by far the most well studied. Other language influence detection (OLID) is the task of identifying which languages, other than the principal language in which a text is written, might be influencing the linguistic choices in that target language. For example, an individual might be writing in English on the Internet, but it might be possible to discover both Arabic and French interlingual features influencing that English, and this then might inform understanding of the writer’s sociolinguistic history. This form of analysis is more commonly referred to as native language identification (NLI or NLID), but as Reference Kredens, Perkins and GrantKredens et al. (2019a) point out, the idea of a single ‘native’ language that might be identified is problematic – many individuals are raised in multilingual environments, and some might fairly be described as simultaneous bilinguals or multilinguals with contact from several languages affecting their production of a target language. There is a further profiling task perhaps exemplified by Svartvik’s and Coulthard’s identification of police register in Evans’ and Bentley’s witness statements, or by Shuy’s identification that the use of ‘devil strip’ indicates the writer as having linguistic history in Akron, Ohio (reported in Reference HittHitt, 2012).Footnote ⁸ This task is to identify a register or dialect that might indicate the community from which the author is drawn. Such a community might be a professional community, a geographic community, or a community of practice (defined by Reference Wenger, McDermott and SnyderWenger et al. (2002) as a community based in exchanged knowledge and regular shared activity). To acquire and use the identifying linguistic idiosyncrasies of such a community indicates at least strong linguistic contact with members of the community and possibly membership in it. Sociolinguistic profiling might therefore enable a linguist to draw a sketch of an anonymous offender and so assist investigators in their search for a suspect. In most jurisdictions, such profiling work will never be admitted in court and a report is typically viewed as an intelligence product rather than as evidential. Reference Grant and MacLeodGrant and MacLeod (2020) provide a discussion of the various ways forensic authorship analyses can be used outside of the provision of actual evidence in court.

Author search is a less well-studied form of authorship analysis. The task here is to devise search terms from the text of an anonymous writer, often to find online examples of other writings by the same author. These techniques might be used, for example, to identify an anonymous blogger or to link two anonymous user accounts across dark web fora to indicate that the same individual is behind those accounts. Or they might be used to find an anonymous dark web writer by identifying their writings on the clear web. Reference Koppel, Schler, Argamon and MesseriKoppel et al. (2006b) and Reference Koppel, Schler and ArgamonKoppel et al. (2011) report authorship experiments involving 10,000 authors and Reference Narayanan, Paskov and GongNarayanan et al. (2012) describe their study using a billion-word blog corpus with 100,000 authors. Using three blog posts to search, they can identify an anonymous author 20 per cent of the time and get a top twenty result 35 per cent of the time. Developments since Narayanan include Reference Ruder, Ghaffari and BreslinRuder et al.’s (2016) work, which provides cross-genre examples (with texts from email, the Internet Movie Database (IMDb), blogs, Twitter, and Reddit), and Reference Theóphilo, Pereira and RochaTheóphilo et al. (2019), who tackle this problem using the very short texts of Twitter. Reference Kredens, Pezik, Rogers and ShiuKredens et al. (2019b) refer to this task in the forensic context as ‘linguistically enabled offender identification’ and have described a series of studies and experiments across two corpora of forum messages. In the first experiment, with a corpus of 418 million words from 114,000 authors, they first used a single message-board post as a basis for a search, and in their results, which rank likely authors from the rest of the corpus, they achieved 47.9 per cent recall in the first thirty positions in the ranking (average hit rank = 7.2, median = 4). This means that in nearly half the experiments, other posts by the anonymous author appeared in the top thirty search hits. When they took fifty randomly selected posts from the author, rather than a single post, their results improved to achieve 89.7 per cent recall in the first thirty predictions (average hit rank = 2.7, median = 1). In an even bigger experiment with a bulletin board corpus of 2 billion words from 588,000 authors, results with a single input post were reduced to 19.2 per cent recall in the first thirty predictions (average hit rank = 5.46, median = 3); and with fifty random posts from a single author as input to 45.1 per cent (average hit rank = 5.46, median = 3). These results demonstrate both the plausibility and the power of author search approaches, and the issue of increasing the size of the search pool up to a full internet-scale technology.

Across these varied authorship analysis tasks, the nature of the genre and the length of the text can be important. It perhaps goes without saying that shorter texts provide less information to an authorship analysis than longer texts, so attributing a single Short Message Service (SMS) text message may be more challenging than attributing a blog post, a book chapter, or an entire book. On the other hand, there may be several hundred or even thousands of known text messages in an authorship problem, and this can compensate for the shortness of individual messages. Reference Grieve, Clarke and ChiangGrieve et al. (2019) suggest that more standard methods of authorship analysis struggle with texts of fewer than 500 words, and this can lead to approaches that concatenate very short texts. Unfortunately, this is precisely the territory in which forensic authorship analysis is situated. Reference Ehrhardt, Grewendorf and RathertEhrhardt (2007), for example, reports that for the German Federal Criminal Police Office, the average length of criminal texts considered between 2002 and 2005 was 248 words, with most being shorter than 200 words. Cross-genre comparative authorship problems, comparing, say, diary entries to a suicide note, or social media data to emails, or to handwritten letters, also raises difficulties as the affordances and constraints for different genres naturally affect the individual style. Reference Litvinova, Seredin, Litvinova, Dankova, Zagorovskaya, Karpov, Jokisch and PotapovaLitvinova and Seredin (2018) describe cross-genre problems as being ‘the most realistic, yet the most difficult scenario, (p. 223), and there are a limited number of studies which attempt to address this issue directly (see e.g. also Reference Kestemont, Luyckx, Daelemans and CrombezKestemont et al., 2012).

Any discussion of authorship analysis requires some understanding of the process of authorship. Reference LoveLove (2002) writes usefully about the separate functions that occur in the process of authorship, listing precursory authorship (the dependence on prior texts and sources whether directly quoted or not), executive authorship (the wordsmithing itself in stringing together words into phrases or sentences), revisionary authorship (involving heavy or lighter editing), and finally declarative authorship (involving the signing off of a document which might be individual or organisational). These functions have been discussed in some detail in Reference Grant, Gibbons and TurellGrant (2008), but it suffices to say here that each of these functions can be fulfilled by one or more different individuals. Thus, many authors may write precursory sources used in a text, many writers might contribute actual phrases or sentences to a text, many authors may edit or change a text, and many may truthfully declare it to be theirs. Authorship attribution can only rationally be applied to texts where preliminary analysis or argument can support an assumption that a single individual was responsible for writing the text or a specified portion of it. In forensic casework, it might be reasonable to assume a single writer is involved if the queried document is a sexually explicit communication, but less so if it is a commercial extortion letter or a defamatory blog post. This reflection points to potential tasks which are currently generally unexplored in the authorship analysis literature, tasks around determining how many authors might have contributed to a text and in what ways.

Finally, there is a set of further tasks which are related to authorship analysis but which are not directly of concern here. Reference Grant and MacLeodGrant and MacLeod (2020) in their study of online undercover policing write of authorship synthesis, which they break down into identity assumption, where an individual’s written presence online needs to be seamlessly taken over by an undercover operative, and linguistic legend building, where the task is to create a linguistic style that is sufficiently different from their own but that can be used consistently to create an online persona. In discussions of authorship disguise there are also obfuscation tasks (see e.g. Reference Juola and VescoviJuola and Vescovi, 2011) in which the task is to hide the style of the writer as a defence against all the types of authorship analysis described in this Section.

Approaches to Forensic Authorship Analysis

In terms of broad approach, authorship analyses can be split into stylistic analyses and stylometric analyses, and both approaches can be applied to the range of tasks described earlier in this Element. The stylistic approach can be characterised as an approach where in each case, markers of authorship will be elicited from every text and thus the markers of authorship will vary from case to case. In contrast, stylometric approaches attempt validation of markers of authorship in advance of tackling a specific problem and thus hope to create a set of general reliable measures of any author’s style. Neither stylistic nor stylometric approaches necessarily require a manual analysis or a computational approach, but typically stylistic approaches tend to be associated with hand analysis and stylometric approaches with computational analysis. Since its origins, forensic authorship analysis has involved the descriptive linguistic and statistical approaches, as exemplified by Svartvik, and computational techniques, as foreshadowed in Bailey’s computer-assisted analysis and in Coulthard’s corpus work in the Bentley case. Stylistic and stylometric approaches are sometimes seen as in opposition to one another, and possibly from incommensurable paradigms, but again, as exemplified by Svartvik and Coulthard, this does not have to be the case.

When considering the question of progress in forensic authorship analysis, this might address different aspects of the tasks which can be seen as three categories of research:

1. (1) The linguistic individual: questions of why there might be within-individual linguistic consistency and between-individual linguistic distinctiveness, and to what extent any or all of us possess a discernible ‘idiolect’;

2. (2) Markers of authorship: questions about the best methods to describe texts and to draw out any individuating features in those texts (sometimes referred to as markers of authorship), and about the best methods for partialing out influences on style other than authorship – for example, from the communities of practice from which an author is drawn, from genre, or from the mode of production of a text;

3. (3) Inference and decision-making: questions about the best methods to draw logical conclusions about authorship and how to weigh and present those conclusions.

Each of these areas is now addressed.

Conclusions

With regard to the Barot case, no computational analysis was possible within the constrained time period and circumstance, and thus it is unsurprising that the analysis was a stylistic analysis. In terms of taxonomy, it was a verification task – we had a small selection of known writings from Barot to compare with the twelve-thousand-word query text, The Rough Cut to the Gas Limo Project. The feature set was broad: there was no pre-planned protocol to elicit features and no formal validation of method or features. Subsequent to the initial analysis, we carried out work to demonstrate rarity of these features, but the overall analysis fell a long way short of current understandings of forensic science.

A Brief History of Forensic Science

Just as it is difficult to spot the origins of forensic authorship analysis, so it is difficult to plot an absolute origin point for forensic science. A fascinating early text is Song Ci’s 1247 book Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified, also known as The Washing Away of Wrongs. Song Ci was a judge and coroner interested in autopsy and medical examination in Hunan Province in China during the middle of the thirteenth century. He made detailed observations to distinguish causes of death. For example, he described post-mortem features of bodies of people who had died by drowning, by suffocation, and/or by strangulation (but these recognisably scientific observations appear alongside descriptions of bodies of individuals who had died from fear of goblins). In terms of knowledge about, forensic pathology has moved on considerably since thirteenth-century China, but Song Ci’s messages about the purpose and ethics of forensic examination are pertinent today. He writes:

One significant message of the book is that the success of an inquest depends as much on the integrity of the individual coroner as on their knowledge and skill.

Many histories of forensic science in the Western world begin with the advent of analytic chemistry, fingerprinting, and photography in the 1800s, and with the coincident origins of professional policing and the rise of the role of the detective in different parts of the world. The rise of forensic toxicology was marked in France with the 1813 publication of Traite de Poissons by Mathieu Orfila from the University of Paris, the 1835 resolution of a case by Henry Goddard of the London Bow Street Runners using the comparison of bullet moulds, and the 1880 Nature publication of an article on forensic fingerprinting by Henry Faulds. This rise of the forensic sciences culminates with Edmond Locard’s statement of his Exchange Principle that ‘every contact leaves a trace’, which was attributed to him but which he may never have said. The closest expression seems to be

Nevertheless, the twentieth century saw the subsequent accumulation of knowledge about across forensic science disciplines which apparently demonstrated the truth of his aphorism.

In 1987 came a turning point that marks a significant shift in forensic science across many cases – the development of the use of DNA as evidence of identity. This development arguably produces a paradigm shift not only in the analysis of human secretions and deposits, but also in forensic science more generally. In 1987, Colin Pitchfork was convicted for the rape and murder of Lynda Mann in Narborough, Leicestershire, in the UK, and of Dawn Ashworth in Enderby, a few miles away (Reference EvansEvans, 1998).Footnote ¹¹ The first use of DNA profiling evidence in this investigation in fact proved the innocence of the then prime suspect for these murders. At interview, Robert Buckland, a seventeen-year-old with learning difficulties, had knowledge about the position of Dawn Ashworth’s body and then confessed to her murder, although he consistently denied murdering Lynda Mann. Alec Jeffreys of the University of Leicester (building on the work of Peter Gill and Dave Werret of the UK’s Forensic Science Service) produced the world’s first DNA profile to be used in a criminal investigation.Footnote ¹² This demonstrated that semen taken from Ashworth’s body was not Buckland’s, and also that the two murders were indeed carried out by the same offender. Without the DNA evidence, it would have been highly likely that Buckland would have been convicted, but instead the investigation had to continue. During a community collection of five thousand DNA samples, Pitchfork got a friend to provide a sample in his stead, but this deception was discovered and Pitchfork was ultimately identified as having the same DNA profile as the secretions left on the bodies of the two fifteen-year-olds. This was a great step forward in forensic analytic techniques and in knowledge about how to place an individual at a crime scene that radically transformed the power of forensic science to solve old, cold cases as well as new. From the 1990s the growth in the use and sophistication of DNA evidence was rapid, and it brought justice to many victims of crime through bringing convictions of the guilty. Building on the demonstration of Buckland’s innocence, it also brought justice through exonerating many victims of mistaken conviction, not least through initiatives such as the Innocence Project, which was established just five years after the conviction of Colin Pitchfork.Footnote ¹³

The creation of DNA profiling as a forensic science technique and the growing realisation of the strength and scientific soundness of DNA evidence led to a reappraisal of other forensic sciences. In this sense, 1987 marks the beginning of a scientific revolution for forensic identification sciences (Reference Saks and KoehlerSaks and Koehler, 2005) and the point at which forensic sciences themselves become the subject of intense scrutiny. This scrutiny has led to significant change in how expert scientific evidence is researched, how evidence in individual cases is evaluated, and how experts are perceived in the courtroom. The change created by DNA evidence is more than the acquisition of new knowledge about; the change has created a reframing of the nature of forensic science and of the role of the expert scientific witness.

Recognition of Three Issues

Two decades after the use of DNA evidence in the Pitchfork case, the discrepancy between the explicit scientific foundation for DNA evidence and the apparent lack of foundation in other sciences was attracting the attention of governments and legislators. In the United States, Congress requested that the National Academy of Science (NAS) take evidence and report on the state of forensic science in the United States. The 2009 report begins by recognising that ‘the forensic science system, encompassing both research and practice, has serious problems’ (NAS, 2009, p. xx). It sets out the context of forensic science as a set of interpretative disciplines and states that the ‘simple reality is that the interpretation of forensic evidence is not always based on scientific studies to determine its validity’, and also that ‘there is a notable dearth of peer-reviewed, published studies establishing the scientific bases and validity of many forensic methods’ (pp. 7–8). Further to this, the report states that for disciplines “that rely on subjective assessments of matching characteristics … these disciplines need to develop rigorous protocols to guide these subjective interpretations and pursue equally rigorous research and evaluation programs’ (p. 8). The NAS report concludes:

In the UK, the House of Commons ordered a Law Commission examination of Expert Evidence (2011) which also criticised the reliability of forensic science evidence. The commission recommended a new admissibility test for expert evidence and a proper framework for screening expert evidence in criminal proceedings. It also produced a draft bill to put these changes into effect. Although the bill and approach were officially rejected by the Ministry of Justice in 2013, the Criminal Procedure Rules Committee adopted some of the recommendations, and these Rules have the force of secondary legislation. Further to this, in 2019, the UK House of Lords Science and Technology Select Committee published a report subtitled ‘A Blueprint for Change’ and the report is blunt, summarising baldly that ‘the quality and delivery of forensic science in England and Wales is inadequate’ (House of Lords, 2019, p. 4). It finishes with the recommendation that the UK ‘urgently and substantially increase the amount of dedicated funding allocated to forensic science for both technological advances and foundational research’ (§187). As with the NAS (2009) report and the Law Commission report (Reference Commission2011), there is the recognition of twin problems – of ensuring the validity of the basic science, and of recognising and eliminating potential for bias and error in interpretation. With regard to ensuring validity, this is a call for an increase in knowledge about. The call for validation is initially a call for basic science in each forensic discipline to build a knowledge base on which forensic techniques can sit. Eliminating bias, on the other hand, is more of a call for a change in thinking about how forensic analyses are carried out.

Finally, a third issue can be identified in the UK reports (which is not addressed in the NAS report): a focus on the thinking about the logic of forensic evidence, about decision-making on the basis of scientific evidence. Thus the Law Reference CommissionCommission (2011) proposed a change to Criminal Procedure Rules that an expert report should include:

Each of these three issues is now discussed in more detail.

The Issue of Validation

The 2009 NAS report was followed up in 2016 by the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST), which provided a report on ‘Ensuring Scientific Validity of Feature-Comparison Methods’ (PCAST, 2016) in which the theme of validation was particularly identified and discussed. The stated aim as expressed in the executive summary was to fill two important gaps:

The report focusses on a series of feature comparison methods (DNA samples, bite marks, latent fingerprints, firearm marks, footwear, and hair comparisons). Throughout the report the authors find the non-DNA disciplines wanting, writing disparagingly about the lack of validation studies. Having expressed considerable concern for the state of forensic science generally, they set out criteria for testing the ‘foundational’ and ‘applied’ validity of forensic science methods, where ‘foundational’ validity refers to the basic scientific studies and ‘applied’ validity to the application protocols for specific cases. Foundational validation can be seen as demonstrating that predictions can be reliably made on the basis of a specified method in general problems. Applied validation is required to demonstrate reliability of prediction within narrowly defined parameters of specified forensic problems.

On foundational validity PCAST (2016) asserts that:

PCAST (2016) finds that there are sufficient studies to support foundational validity in some forms of DNA analysis and (to a lesser degree) for latent fingerprint examination, but no such foundational validity had been established for bite-mark analysis, firearms analysis, footwear analysis, or hair analysis, and for other forensic disciplines there is an assumption that they are no further advanced as ‘many forensic feature-comparison methods have historically been assumed rather than established to be foundationally valid based on appropriate empirical evidence’ (p. 122). Forensic authorship analysis is not considered.

The PCAST report has received some criticism from the US Department of Justice (DOJ, 2021). This response takes exception to the idea that all feature comparison requires measurement, arguing that many forms of comparison result in nominal categorisation (such as biological sex and colour) rather than measurement per se, pointing out that some properties of a phenomenon have no magnitude and so cannot be subject to metrical evaluation. The report’s authors point to the Kuhmo Tire decision, which is that ‘an expert testimony may – but need not be – derived from or verified by measurement of statistics’ (p. 7). Secondly, the DOJ critiques the narrow definition of validation adopted by PCAST, arguing that there is no single scientific method to validate findings. The DOJ rejects PCAST’s six criteria for evaluating studies and instead points to ISO17025 (the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) criteria for assessing the competence of testing and calibration laboratories) which allows for a variety of methods for validation. Finally, the DOJ objects to the idea that there is a single form of error rate that can only be established using black-box studies, citing Reference Thompson, Black, Jain and KadaneThompson et al. (2017) on fingerprinting, who point out that error rates can vary enormously according to a variety of factors such as the ‘quality of the prints, the amount of detail present, and whether the known print was selected based on its similarity to the latent print’ (p. 45). The DOJ here is making the point that the number of variables and the interactions between them cannot always be reduced to simple and informative error rates, that foundational validity is not enough.

The UK Forensic Science Regulator’s Guidance on Validation in 2020 sets out the requirements for satisfactory validation studies. Just as the PCAST report distinguishes between ‘foundational validity’ and ‘applied validity’, the Forensic Science Regulator (FSR) draws a different distinction between ‘developmental validation’ and ‘internal validation’ (FSR, 2020, § 6.2.7), with the latter referring to the validation of a method as it is applied within a particular laboratory. In a further, related distinction, Reference MorrisonMorrison (2018) and Reference Morrison, Enzinger and HughesMorrison et al. (2021) point to an issue of validity in forensic speech science and argue convincingly that, in speech science at least, case-specific adjustment of validation results is also required. They refer to this as ‘calibration’.

Although the FSR writes, ‘It is not part of the role of the Regulator to become directly involved in the validation of new methods within the field of forensic science’ (§10.1.1), and although she does indeed follow ISO17025 and takes a broader view of validation studies than PCAST, she also sets out a framework for a successful validation of a method and then its application in a forensic laboratory (FSR, 2020, §7.1.1). The wider report provides a detailed protocol for carrying out such studies both on the basic techniques and on the establishment of the competence of a particular forensic unit in carrying out any such study.

In spite of these calls from both the USA and the UK, across the forensic sciences, the rate at which validation studies are occurring is slow. The UK FSR manages to cite four cases where lack of validation was seen as an issue at criminal appeal, but forensic evidence of all sorts is still used in the English and Welsh courts every day. There is a similar picture across the fractured jurisdictional landscape of the USA (DOJ, 2021), but there are also examples of good practice. Even the PCAST report commends the FBI laboratory’s research programme on latent fingerprint examination, saying it is:

One aspect of the debate around validation that is sometimes missed is that validation studies are a limited and indirect way of demonstrating the truth of a proposition. As we have seen in the debate about the nature of progress in science, demonstrability is a key distinguishing feature of scientific knowledge. Validation is necessary to demonstrate that a result of a forensic examination can be depended upon, but it is not always enough. This is a theme to which we return.

The Issue of Contextual Bias and Confirmation Bias

Psychological bias in the forensic examiner is not a newly recognised issue. Song Ci writes about the difficulty in being set a task of re-examination of another coroner’s work and that the task ‘is not to verify a previous verdict, but to guard against any injustice being done’ (Reference Song, Giles and Hall2010, p. 14). Furthermore, forensic examiners have to put aside a variety of psychological considerations, including ‘fear of offending the coroner who presided at the previous examination [… and] anxiety to suit the report to the wishes of superior officers’ and so on. Instead, the task is to ‘proceed with caution and justice to make the most careful examination possible … to arrive at the unvarnished truth’ (p. 15). However, we now know that guarding against such fears and anxieties is not enough; no human analyst can in fact relieve themselves of their psychological biases – such biases are inevitable and need to be mitigated by designing them out of the analysis process itself.

Good reviews of the state of the art of cognitive and contextual bias in forensic science are provided by Reference FoundFound (2015), Reference Stoel, Berger, Kerkhoff, Mattijssen, Dror, Strom and HickmanStoel (2015), and Reference Edmond, Towler and GrownsEdmond (2017), and each of these set out that honest, diligent forensic scientists are subject to cognitive biases (in the same way we all are in our day-to-day decision-making). Possibly the most cited study in this context is that of Reference Dror, Charlton and PéronDror et al. (2006). Dror took fingerprints from real cases of expert fingerprint examiners, where half of the cases had been decided by those examiners as being individualisations (matches) and half as exclusions (not matches). These fingerprints were then presented back to the same examiner under one of two conditions – in the control condition, no contextual information was given, but in the experimental condition, the examiners were provided with a story about the origins of the print that tested whether the story would bias their judgment against their original conclusion. When presented with contextual information, the expert forensic scientists gave contradictory information from their original judgments in two thirds of the cases. This stark example has been replicated by Dror and others not only in fingerprinting, but also in other forensic sciences, including the interpretation of DNA evidence (e.g. Reference Jeanguenat, Budowle and DrorJeanguenat et al., 2017). Cognitive psychologists typically break these biases down into two main types – contextual bias, such as that created by Dror (2006), and confirmation bias, a particular form of contextual bias where the context is used to set up an expectation that might be confirmed.

Responses to such research are mixed across different forensic science types. The UK FSR (FSR, 2020a) provides guidance on designing bias out of the processes of forensic investigation, from the collection of forensic samples by Scene of Crime Officers (SOCOs), through to specific lab disciplines of DNA mixtures, fingerprints and generic marks, and particulate trace evidence. In every case, the focus is on mitigation strategies – for example, in fingerprint examination, it is largely unnecessary for the print examiner to be given any story of the origins of the prints under examination, and so no case story should be given to the examiner. In contrast to this mitigation advice, the PCAST (2016) report focusses on the distinction between objective and subjective methods, stating starkly that

This seems to suggest that objective sciences are not susceptible to bias, but this runs counter to the growing evidence base, such as Reference Jeanguenat, Budowle and DrorJeanguenat et al.’s (2017) evidence of contextual bias in DNA evidence. Also, as pointed out by the DOJ report (2021), any distinction between subjective and objective methods may in fact be at best slippery. More broadly, there has been some pushback from the forensic science community on the reliance of objective methods over human expertise so that whilst Reference Evett, Berger, Buckleton, Champod and JacksonEvett et al. (2017) acknowledge the weaknesses of qualitative subjective opinions, they also argue against viewing the ideal position of the scientist as a black box:

Evett et al.’s argument here is essentially a complaint about the limitations of validation alone. As we shall see, similar concerns can be raised, even where there is strong validation, against wholly automated methods, where decision-making in individual cases can become resistant to explanation as to how the decision was reached.

Avoiding the negative consequences of cognitive biases in forensic expertise requires a recognition of where the judgements exist in apparently objective forensic analysis protocols and procedures, as well as through providing protocols to minimise those subjective judgements and creating mitigation strategies to design out the possibility of bias. Often such judgements are implicit and go unnoticed, and they require a critical eye to be brought to the fore. In the context of forensic authorship analysis, Reference ArgamonArgamon (2018) demonstrates how apparently objective, computational authorship analysis techniques in fact rely on a series of subjective, expert judgements.

The Issue of a Logically Correct Analysis

In most jurisdictions, a substantial task of the court is to decide the facts of the case – to decide what happened. It is in this regard that the judge(s) or jury is referred to as the trier-of-fact. As we have discussed with regard to forensic evidence, this requires a process of inference or prediction from observations to past events.

In the England and Wales Criminal Practice Directions (CrimPD, 2015), it is made explicit that it is the role of the expert witness to assist the court in decision-making, but absolutely not to determine the ultimate issue. It has, however, been a common framing of the role of the forensic expert witness in identification evidence that they should arrive at an opinion of match/non-match between a known sample and the sample collected from a crime scene. It is partly for this reason that Reference Morrison, Kaye and BaldingMorrison et al. (2017) critique the PCAST (2016) report for the view that forensic examination should involve a two-stage procedure in which the first stage is ‘match’/’non-match’ and the second stage is empirical assessment of sensitivity (correct acceptance) and false alarm (false acceptance) rates. The difficulty is that any statement of expert identification opinion in terms of match/non-match can be seen as a usurpation of the role of the trier-of-fact. It also follows that any related expression by the expert of a percentage certainty that they attach to their match/non-match opinion only limits their appropriation of the jury’s role – expression of a 90 per cent chance of a match merely limits the expert’s appropriation of the jury’s role to that 90 per cent.

In the UK, a reframing of the role of the expert and of the role of scientific evidence has come in part as a result of a series of miscarriages of justice that have resulted from statistical and logical errors from both experts and the lower courts. The UK House of Lords Science and Technology Committee (2019) investigated the state of forensic science and its provision and focussed in part on this issue of how scientific evidence should be presented to courts. Their witnesses on this concluded that ‘the statistical aspects of forensic evidence are often either simply overlooked (because they are considered too difficult) or poorly presented by both lawyers and forensic scientists’ (§164).

The House of Lords Committee recommends a shift of understanding in the role of the expert witness, which parallels the approach described in the Law Reference CommissionCommission (2011) report. This can best be described as the two-hypothesis approach. In identification evidence, there is not one hypothesis but two hypotheses that evaluate whether disputed material can be associated with a known sample collected from the suspect. Under the two-hypothesis paradigm, it is the job of the expert witness to assess separately the probability of seeing the evidence given two possible hypotheses. Thus, in a fingerprint case, the two questions for the expert would be:

• What is the probability of seeing this set of features in the collected fingerprint if the defendant had handled the object?

• What is the probability of seeing this set of features in the collected fingerprint if someone other than defendant had handled the object?

Only by determining both probabilities can the expert explain to the court how the jury might weigh the fingerprint evidence against the other – potentially conflicting – evidence in the case. A simplified version of possible outcomes of the expert’s work is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Evidence matrix in two-hypothesis reasoning

In cells A and C of Figure 3, we have the ‘match’ condition. There is a high probability of seeing a set of features (in the fingerprint collected from the crime scene) if the fingerprint did indeed come from the defendant. This is to say the crime scene fingerprint is consistent with the defendant’s known fingerprint. One danger of this approach, though, is illustrated in the difference between cell A and cell C. In cell A, the features observed are common across many other people, so the evidence carries little weight. In cell C, the observed features are rare or distinctive. In this case, the evidence has more substantial weight. This is both intuitive and can be expressed mathematically as a likelihood ratio. The reciprocal conclusion is true for the situation represented by cell B and in the situation in cell D. With regard to cell A, although this is a match, it is a relatively meaningless match and the expert has little assistance to offer the jury.

The logic of expert evidence requires that a two-hypothesis approach is followed, but it is not absolutely necessary for this to be expressed mathematically. A mathematical expression of this approach, however, can be derived, and this referred to as a likelihood ratio. Its formulation is typically given thus:

$weightofevidence=\frac{\text{Pr}\left(E\mid Hi\right)}{\text{Pr}\left(E\mid Hj\right)}$

In this expression, Pr stands for probability and the vertical line | is read as ‘given’. E is the observed evidence and H_i is the identification hypothesis. The top line of the equation can then be read as the probability of the evidence given that the defendant was the source of the evidence. H_j is the hypothesis that someone else was the source of the evidence, and so this line can be read as the probability of the evidence given that someone other than the defendant was the source of the evidence. Although this is a mathematical expression that can be applied where actual probabilities have been calculated, the greater importance of the approach is in the logic. This means that even if a more qualitative approach is taken, attention needs to be paid to both points of the consistency of features across the known and the disputed materials and also the distinctiveness of those features in some relevant population. Reference LucyLucy (2013) provides a helpful introduction to this approach to forensic inference and statistics.

This idea – that the logically correct role for the expert is to help the trier-of-fact weigh each particular piece of evidence – enables the trier-of-fact to do their job in the wider case. It has been in fact argued that if all evidence in a case could be presented mathematically as likelihood ratios, then this approach might replace the jury altogether (Reference LindleyLindley, 1977). This might be considered an extreme, if logical endpoint to this kind of approach, particularly if combined with wholly automated systems for determining the weight of forensic evidence (but see Reference Swofford and ChampodSwofford and Champod, 2021, discussed later in this Element with regard to this possibility). A more realistic advantage to the likelihood ratio method could be the calculation of the cumulative weight of evidence across different forensic disciplines. Realisation of this is some way off, however, and would rely on all evidence to be evaluated by triers-of-fact as a mathematical weight.

There is some question as to whether the mathematical use of likelihood ratios with judges and lay juries is a good thing. Evidence is building that suggests that judges and juries are not well equipped for using these approaches in their decision-making. Reference de Keijser and ElffersDe Keijser and Elffers (2012) showed that both judges and forensic scientists themselves have a poor understanding of likelihood ratio expressions in forensic reports. This has been explored further by Reference Martire, Kemp, Watkins, Sayle and NewellMartire et al. (2013, Reference Martire, Kemp, Sayle and Newell2014) who show (with students performing as mock jurors) that change of belief occurred in line with both verbal and numerical likelihood expressions, but also that this belief change was weaker than the likelihood calculations would predict. Furthermore, they observed a ‘weak evidence effect’ where weak evidence of guilt tended to be interpreted as reducing the likelihood of guilt rather than increasing it marginally, and that the numerical presentation of likelihoods was more resistant to this effect.

In spite of these issues with humans’ reasoning with likelihoods, it can be seen that simply declaring a match or non-match has little value in its own right, without also understanding the possibility of matches in other persons. This paradigm shift, however, has not yet properly taken hold. Reference Bali, Edmond, Ballantyne, Kemp and MartireBali et al. (2020) show that the categorial match/non-match statements are still in the majority across eight forensic science disciplines. The slow uptake may be partly because using the likelihood ratio can depend upon validation studies, which in turn depend on producing databases of population statistics. This may be possible and has been achieved in some areas (such as fingerprinting), but it presents difficulties where population statistics are difficult to collect or even where it is difficult to conceptually formulate a population at all. As we will see, this may be the case for forensic authorship analysis and it also may be true in other forensic disciplines.

Development in Law of Admissibility

Alongside the progress in forensic science itself has come development in law and policy. Some developments in law intend to address the aforementioned concerns with validation. This has been significantly discussed elsewhere (e.g. Reference Grant and MacLeodGrant and MacLeod, 2020; Reference Tiersma and SolanTiersma and Solan, 2002), and most of these discussions focus on the US federal Daubert standard for the admissibility of evidence. The Daubert standard is in fact an interpretation of the application of the 1975 Federal Rule of Evidence 702 and comprises four potential criteria for judging whether expert evidence should be admitted:

The Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael (119 S.Ct. 1167 (1999)) ruling of the US Supreme Court confirmed that these criteria apply to anyone claiming an expertise (not just scientists), and the case law was reflected in the revision to the Federal Rule of Evidence 702 (2000).

Just as the Daubert–Kumho criteria only provide guidance on how a court might assess the scientific credentials of evidence, so there is some commentary that the courts have recognised this flexibility and not strictly applied them. Thus, Reference ChengCheng (2013) observes, ‘Daubert in practice fundamentally differs from Daubert in theory’ (p. 542) and suggests that ‘expert testimony is given a “hard look” for intellectual rigor, but nothing more’ (p. 543). He further argues that one aspiration for evidence should be that it is ‘sufficiently transparent to permit reasoned decision making’ (p. 547) by the trier-of-fact. As Cheng points out, such an aspiration could challenge both ad hominem subjective expertise and computational analyses, where ‘researchers have little idea why [a method] works as a matter of substantive theory’ (p. 548), effectively arguing against the ipse dixit human expert, and also that it applies against a computational or algorithmic ipse dixit machine.

In UK contexts, there have been similar developments in law and policy around the admissibility of scientific evidence. Reference Grant and MacLeodGrant and MacLeod (2020) show the law developed on admissibility ultimately points (via the Canadian Supreme Court) back to the Daubert standards. Following the Law Commission report on expert evidence (2011), the UK government decided not to legislate for statutory Daubert-like hearings, but issues surrounding the admissibility of expert evidence are heard in pretrial hearings and tested against common law, the Criminal Practice Directions, and, less formally, against standards developed by the FSR. Criminal Practice Directions as a form of statutory instrument can be amended without primary legislation, and since 2005, the power to make such amendments lies with the Lord Chief Justice. This power is used very frequently (forty-three times in the past nine years), and the provision on expert evidence was most significantly updated with regard to expert evidence in 2015 (and since then updated seven further times with more minor changes). Para 19A.4 citing the R v. Dlugosz judgment on DNA evidence states:

The Directions go on to set out the obligations of the expert witness to the court and the basis on which their evidence should be admitted. At 19A.5, these are set out in detail as ‘factors which the Court may take into account in determining the reliability of expert evidence and therefore admissibility’. These include a focus on validity of methods, explanation of how safe an inference is (which it suggests might be done in terms of significance testing ‘or in other appropriate terms’), degree of precision of the test, and so on. It also sets out at 19.B the statement and declaration that an expert witness must make within their report and for which they can be held in contempt if they breach it. This statement begins:

Expert witnesses can and have been prosecuted for contempt of court for breaching this duty. In Liverpool Victoria Insurance Co Ltd v. Zafar (2019), a medical expert was found guilty of contempt for submitting a false statement of truth and was initially sentenced to six months’ imprisonment, suspended for two years, but his own insurers appealed the sentence as too lenient and the Court of Appeal raised the sentence to nine months to be served immediately.

A final innovation in CrimPD (2015) is that it makes provision in criminal trials for pre-hearing discussion between the expert witnesses. This process, sometimes referred to as ‘hot-tubbing’ experts, can be entered into by agreement of the two parties or by order of the court. In these meetings, the experts from each side are asked to discuss the case to resolve issues of dispute where this is possible, and then to write a joint report in which their issues of agreement and disagreement are set out.

Along with the Criminal Practice Directions in the UK, the FSR has a statutory duty to improve forensic science evidence, and she has also developed policy briefs and instructions to forensic science providers covering validation (FSR, 2020b) and confirmation bias (FSR, 2020a), and although these do not have legal force, they are highly influential and provide ‘advice and guidance so providers of forensic science services can demonstrate compliance with common standards’ (www.gov.uk/government/organisations/forensic-science-regulator/about). In an adversarial system, this superstructure of law, statuary instruments, guidance, and codes from a regulator provides a relatively responsive framework for improving the quality of admitted evidence.

Conclusions on the Idea of Progress in Forensic Science

Since the origins of modern forensic science, there has never been such a dramatic shift as that triggered by the development of DNA profiles in the late 1980s. We have demonstrated that in each of three main areas, there is an impetus for dramatic change amounting to the paradigm shift anticipated by Reference Saks and KoehlerSaks and Koehler (2005). These issues are the validation of methods, the mitigation or elimination of contextual biases, and the development in how expert evidence should be logically presented to the courts. In many areas of forensic science, including in authorship analysis work, the potential for progress across these areas is largely unrealised and older (possibly incommensurable) practices persist. Whilst this persistence might be explained as institutional inertia or even the invested self-interest of current practitioners, this situation raises potential legal issues of whether older approaches are good enough and whether ignoring these developments might provide grounds of appeal for significant numbers of cases. But change is coming, and it has serious implications across forensic science and for forensic authorship analysis work. As the UK FSR writes:

In 2004, at the time of the Barot case, neither the National Academy of Sciences report in the USA nor the Law Commission’s report on expert evidence in the UK had been written and, with hindsight, it is hard to view authorship evidence in that case entirely positively. That and other cases of that time (and earlier) relied on unvalidated features and methods, analyses which had to be subject to all sorts of unnoticed biases, and on expressions of results which were logically flawed. In the next Section, we consider how the issues of validation, problems of contextual bias, and use of the dual hypothesis approach have been, are being, and indeed should be applied to forensic authorship analysis.

Progress with Regard to Approaches to Forensic Authorship Analysis

Progress with regard to Validation

Forensic authorship analysis appears to have been uninterested or resistant to true validation studies. The PAN competitions currently have not been designed to function as validation studies for forensic problems, although Reference Ainsworth and JuolaAinsworth and Juola (2018) provide strong claims that these competitions can function as such. As Reference Ainsworth and JuolaAinsworth and Juola (2018) point out, ‘the development of accuracy benchmarks through the use of shared evaluation corpora on which practitioners can test their methodologies’ (p. 1176) is an important and considerable contribution. Further to this, they note that there is an important issue of a normative change in the field to expect open publication of methods and results, and therefore critique and development in stylometry are occurring in a collaborative space. For all these strengths there are two principal issues with treating the PAN competitions as validation studies in specifically forensic authorship analysis, which both amount to the observation that they are not designed as such. First, the evaluation of authorship tasks are drawn in terms of success in classification. As is typical in such designs, a blind validation set is used to test each entry. The confusion matrix of precision and recall (based on percentages of true positives, false positives, false negatives, and true negatives) is reduced to an F1 score indicating overall performance. This is useful as far as it goes in evaluating various models against one another, but as we have seen, presentation of results in a forensic context requires a different design to understand the weight of evidence for parallel hypotheses. It would require different evaluation designs to address this issue, but such a change would be well within the reach of future PAN competitions.

The other aspect of PAN where change would be useful is in working with forensically relevant problems and data sets. There has to date been no comprehensive survey of practitioners of forensic authorship cases, how analyses are used, and which are submitted in evidence (the closest study to aim at such a survey is perhaps Reference Giménez, Elstein and QueraltGiménez et al., 2021), and there is a strong need for a well-designed assessment of end user needs in this area. From such an assessment of current cases, and also a survey of the needs of law enforcement, a better understanding could enable the building of forensically relevant data sets. In the area of forensic speech comparison, Reference MorrisonMorrison (2018) describes an automatic voice comparison case where a system was used which was not validated in case-realistic conditions. He shows that performance was markedly worse than when case-realistic conditions were used so that the performance figures reported to the court would have been inadvertently inflated and the evidence given greater weight than was empirically justified. In terms of forensically realistic textual data, we know from publication (e.g. Reference Coulthard, Johnson and WrightCoulthard et al., 2017; Reference GrantGrant, 2013) and anecdote that at least some of the forensic authorship cases include text types such as SMS messaging, apps such as WhatsApp, and social media such as Twitter, and we further know that standard Natural Language Processing (NLP) tools for tagging and parsing are not particularly robust for such texts (e.g. Reference HorsmannHorsmann, 2018). Further to any processing issues is the simple fact that such texts are short and analyses sometimes come down to the authorship of a single message. If PAN could replicate such conditions, this would be a significant step forward. It is difficult to argue with Reference MorrisonMorrison’s (2018) conclusion that ‘training using data reflecting the conditions of the case and calibrating system output should be standard practice’ (Reference MorrisonMorrison, 2018, p. e7).

Forensic authorship analysis is not alone as a forensic science discipline in lacking credible validation studies. Many forensic disciplines still lack validation studies and where they have occurred, they can disrupt established practices and perceptions of expertise. It is, however, untenable to ignore the need for validation and there are a number of possibilities in this regard. One issue is whether it is possible to design meaningful validation studies for authorship analysis given the sources of variation in language across genres, modes of production, and audiences, as well as the complexity in identifying the nature of the linguistic individual, and this may be where calibration has a role to play.

As early as 2001, Grant and Baker set out the basic problem in corpus construction with regard to demonstrating the general reliability of stylometric authorship markers. They raise the question of whether it is better to work with a focussed corpus, with less linguistic diversity, but where it may be harder to discriminate between authors, or better to work with a general more broadly conceived corpus:

Reference GrantGrant (2007) suggests a solution to this problem through a twin approach of using a general authorship corpus to demonstrate generalised differences between markers of authorship and then a comparison corpus of relevant texts produced by candidate authors in a specific case. This suggestion is paralleled for other disciplines by the UK FSR, who refers to developmental validation and internal validation of methods used in a specific lab (FSR, 2020, §6.2.7); and, as discussed in the context of automatic speaker recognition, Reference MorrisonMorrison (2018) draws a distinction between validation to refer to population-level reliability and calibration to refer to local demonstration that the features discriminate in case-specific circumstances. This idea relates to Reference Grant, Coulthard and JohnsonGrant’s (2010, Reference Grant, Coulthard, May and Sousa Silva2020) conception of pairwise and small group distinctiveness and population-level distinctiveness. The model advocated as a solution in Reference Morrison, Enzinger and HughesMorrison et al. (2021) suggests that some of the perceived issues with a computational stylometry might be resolved by taking a validation-then-calibration approach. Without a calibration step demonstrating that features discriminate between the authors in a particular case and with texts from those authors in a relevant genre, generally demonstrated stylometric methods cannot be said to be reliable in a specific instance, and should not be used.

A further issue for stylometry is the use of word or character n-gram techniques where in each case a different feature set (set of n-grams) will be used. Setting aside the issue of the linguistic interpretability of some n-grams, there is a further issue that in every case a different set of linguistic features will be generated, and it may be neither logically nor practically possible to provide validation in advance for every individual n-gram used in an analysis. In such situations, the n-gram approach is essentially used as a feature-finding protocol, and the decision-making approach (either statistical or machine learning) effectively weighs or filters the features in terms of their utility in the classification model. This might be seen as effectively carrying out a calibration exercise. Prior validation could be done of the whole n-gram system of feature finding rather than of each feature, and this seems to be a logically tenable position in truly closed-set problems. Where there is a more open set, the difficulty is that this renders the calibration stage impossible. Validation of the whole n-gram approach, treated as a black-box decision-making system, amounts to a rather indirect demonstration of the reliability of the method and may be subject to further problems like those described in Reference MorrisonMorrison (2018).

The issues with validation of n-gram approaches appear to be parallel to those of validation of stylistic approaches. Stylistics as an approach is essentially a feature-finding exercise by stylistic experts, and for small, closed sets focussing on local validation (or calibration) it may be sufficient. The alternative mentioned by Reference ChengCheng (2013) and Reference SolanSolan (2013) is proficiency testing of experts. Proficiency testing faces the same issues as validation of black-box algorithmic systems, in that it only addresses error rates in the general case, not the ability of the expert in a particular case.

A different possibility is to run validation of protocols for stylistic authorship analyses. Each protocol would need to be fairly specific to problem types, and perhaps even text genres, but general enough to be done in advance of specific cases. For example, it would be possible to define a protocol for small, closed sets for short-form messages, and a different protocol for emails (or more generally for texts between 50 and 250 words). Such protocols could be validated across a group of stylistic experts to gain information on error rates, which might be considered and used to further improve protocols as per the PAN competitions in stylometry. Implementation of validation studies of published protocols in authorship analysis should be an important priority for research in the discipline across stylistic and stylometric approaches. Such validation studies would rest on a protocol for case formulation, as is discussed later in this Element, and could also mitigate issues of contextual bias.

Progress with regard to Contextual Bias

The development of analysis protocols is clearly also a partial solution to the issues of cognitive bias. Reference GrantGrant (2013) and Reference Grant, Grieve, Picornell, Perkins and CoulthardGrant and Grieve (2022) sketch out potential ideas for protocols and ways of working that directly address the issue of contextual bias. Contextual bias in authorship analysis arises differently than in many other forensic disciplines because the textual data in authorship analyses often contain the biasing details of the case, the narrative of what has happened, and these cannot be wholly shielded from the analyst. There is no ideal solution to this which makes it more important to recognise and mitigate the biases that will be present in every analyst and in every case. It is important to recognise that contextual biases exist for stylometric as well as stylistic approaches. Reference ArgamonArgamon (2018) lists the numerous decisions required in a stylometric analysis, and each of these decisions provides an entry point for potential bias. It needs also to be recognised, though, that any protocol can be disrupted unless there is wholehearted commitment to the idea that the duty of the expert witness is to the court and to the science rather than to the hiring party. Approaching a case problem in this state of mind is an issue of professional integrity and has to be the foundational mitigation against bias from which all else flows.

The principle set out in Reference Grant, Grieve, Picornell, Perkins and CoulthardGrant and Grieve (2022) is a division of labour between a case manager and a case analyst. It is the role of the case manager to liaise with the client (whether police, defence solicitor, or party in a civil case), to receive and evaluate the case data in the first instance and decide on or collect comparison corpora, and then to evaluate whether the data provided are sufficient to enable the case to proceed. One significant initial bias for experts is the desire to help. When presented with a brutal crime, the desire to help, the desire to be able to say linguistics can help deliver justice for the victim, can be overwhelming, and this is where a case formulation protocol can assist the case manager by addressing a series of narrowly focussed linguistic questions.

Once a decision has been made to take a case, the role of the case manager is to shield the case analyst from biasing contextual information. Minimally, the case manager must consider shielding the case analyst from which side of a case they are working on. They must provide the data to the case analyst in a carefully thought-through order. This may vary according to problem types as identified through the case formulation protocol, but in a small, closed-set case, a good protocol is to provide the K-documents from the various writers first. This is because the known texts tend to contain less case information than the Q-documents. Indeed, if there are sufficient data to allow for it, specific K-documents may be omitted to shield the case analyst from elements of the story or the background situation that led to this being a case in the first place. These can be reintroduced later to provide a form of validation within the analysis. The initial task of the case analyst is to carry out a comparative authorship analysis to produce a discriminating between-author feature list on the basis of these known texts. Stylistic or stylometric methods could be used for feature-finding, and once this stage has been completed, it is effectively locked. The list of features or the discriminative algorithm that separates the authors should not be changed after this stage. Next, if there are sufficient data, there is some possibility to carry out a formal or informal validation – thus it might be possible to ask the case analyst to determine whether previously held back K-documents can be correctly attributed. Only once all of this has been completed and fully reported to the case manager will the Q-document(s) be provided to the case analyst to complete the task. The case analyst will then elicit the discriminating feature set from the Q-documents and use these to provide a weight of evidence in favour of each of the possible authorship hypotheses.

This separation of roles requires an end to the forensic linguist expert working as sole practitioner and a shift to the idea of a forensic linguistic team or laboratory working a case. This would be a substantial shift against current practice, but Reference Grant, Grieve, Picornell, Perkins and CoulthardGrant and Grieve (2022) demonstrate it can be done.Footnote ¹⁴

Progress with regard to Logically Correct Reporting of Results

Currently there are very few research studies which fully take on a dual-hypothesis, likelihood-ratio approach to forensic authorship analysis. Reference Ishihara, Molla and MartinezIshihara (2011, Reference Ishihara2017a, Reference Ishihara2017b) provides the most significant contributions to date, basing his analysis in n-gram stylometric methods, and above all he demonstrates this can be done. It has not been reported that likelihood ratio expressions have been used in textual forensic linguistic casework. It is, however, clear that, in some cases at least, forensic linguists are moving beyond a match/non-match approach and rather weigh the evidence for dual hypotheses. This is the approach used in stylistic approaches which address conclusions in terms of consistency along with distinctiveness (e.g. Reference GrantGrant, 2013). This meets the criteria of logical correctness but does not do so using the mathematical expression of likelihood ratios. The limitation of not using likelihood ratios is that it prevents comparison both with other forensic disciplines generally and with regard to how weighty the authorship evidence might be in a specific case. Clearly for both stylistic and stylometric approaches, further progress requires that we should follow Ishihara’s lead to conduct both validation studies using these frameworks and to develop casework protocols which create likelihood ratios representing the weight of evidence in individual cases.

A Case Formulation Protocol

A starting point is a case formulation protocol, an attempt at which is provided here. As currently conceived, this comprises a set of questions and issues for a case manager to consider before agreeing to take a case. Deciding these questions relies on the case manager’s expertise in eliciting and understanding information from the client, but they keep this information from the case analyst.

These are:

1. 1. Consideration of the structure of the problem

   1. a. Does the problem truly have a closed set of candidate authors?

   2. b. Who is responsible for providing evidence that this is a closed-set problem?

   3. c. Is it reasonable to treat the case as a closed-set problem?

   4. d. If the problem involves an open set, how will this limit any conclusions?

2. 2. Description of the query text(s)

   This requires a description of objective features such as length and number of texts and a structured analysis to consider wider characteristics of the texts’ interactional and socially situated context. This can be achieved using Reference HymesHymes’ (1974) SPEAKING mnemonic, which evaluates Setting, Participants, Ends, Acts Sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms, and Genre. Then the genre analysis can be addressed by describing the purpose, topic, and mode of production of the text. Such an analysis can easily be institutionalised into an assessment form or similar. Once a general understanding of text types and genre has been thought through, more specific questions include:

   Are there reasonable grounds to consider the query text(s) has a single author?

   Does the length of a query text suggest or exclude a particular type of analysis?

3. 3. Description of the comparison text(s) for each candidate author

   1. a. Are there genre differences between K-documents, or between K- and Q-documents which might confound the analysis?

   2. b. Are there audience or broader contextual issues that might confound the analysis?

   3. c. Is there enough comparison material for each candidate author?

All of the answers to these questions lead to a decision of whether a case is viable or should be declined, and also what methods might best be applied to a case whether this is a stylometric approach, a stylistic approach, or some twin-track approach making use of both techniques as advocated by Reference Swofford and ChampodSwofford and Champod (2021).

A full case formulation approach might then trigger a selection from a library of case protocols. Each of these specific protocols would have to detail the decision-making process for each approach or method, validation results for that protocol, and what calibration might be required. With regard to validation, it is these protocols which would be validated, not specific features, computer systems, or individuals’ proficiencies. Such a programme would be a significant leap forward, possibly a revolution, for forensic authorship analysis.