Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-dfsvx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T12:43:11.552Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Selves as Solutions to Social Inequalities

Why Engaging the Full Complexity of Social Identities is Critical to Addressing Disparities

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 September 2020

Tiffany N. Brannon
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles
Peter H. Fisher
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles
Abigail J. Greydanus
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles

Summary

Social disparities tied to social group membership(s) are prevalent and persistent within mainstream institutions (e.g., schools/workplaces). Accordingly, psychological science has harnessed selves - which are malleable and meaningfully shaped by social group membership(s) - as solutions to inequality. We propose and review evidence that theoretical and applied impacts of leveraging 'selves as solutions' can be furthered through the use of a stigma and strengths framework. Specifically, this framework conceptualizes selves in their fuller complexity, allowing the same social group membership to be associated with stigma, risk, and devaluation as well as strengths, resilience, and pride. We provide evidence that by enacting policies and practices that (a) reduce/minimize stigma and (b) recognize/include strengths, mainstream institutions can more fully mitigate social disparities tied to inclusion, achievement and well-being. Using social groups that vary in status/power we examine implications of this framework including the potential to foster positive, recursive, and intergroup impacts on social inequalities.
Get access
Type
Element
Information
Online ISBN: 9781108874267
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 08 October 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, G., Tormala, T. T., & O’Brien, L. T. (2006). The effect of self-affirmation on perception of racism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(5), 616626. http://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418763931Google Scholar
Alford, B., & Lee, S. J. (2016). Toward complete inclusion: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender military service members after repeal of Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell. Social Work, 61(3), 257265. http://doi.org/10.1093/sw/sww033CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allport, G. W. (1954).The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Longman Higher Education.Google Scholar
Altschul, I., Oyserman, D., & Bybee, D. (2006). Racial-Ethnic Identity in Mid-Adolescence: Content and Change as Predictors of Academic Achievement. Child Development, 77(5), 11551169. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00926.xGoogle Scholar
American Psychological Association, Boys and Men Guidelines Group. (2018). APA guidelines for psychological practice with boys and men. Retrieved from www.apa.org/about/policy/psychological-practice-boys-men-guidelines.pdfGoogle Scholar
Anderson, E. (2008). Inclusive masculinity in a fraternal setting. Men and Masculinities, 10(5), 604620. http://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X06291907Google Scholar
Angelou, M. (1978). And Still I Rise: A Book of Poems. Random House.Google Scholar
Arnold, E. A., & Bailey, M. M. (2009). Constructing home and family: How the ballroom community supports African American GLBTQ youth in the face of HIV/AIDS. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 21(2–3), 171188. http://doi.org/10.1080/10538720902772006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashkenas, J., Park, H., & Pearce, A. (2017). Even with affirmative action, Blacks and Hispanics are more underrepresented at top colleges than 35 years ago. New York Times, 118. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/24/us/affirmative-action.htmlGoogle Scholar
Baker, S. (2007). Telling: Living with “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell.” Journal of Legal Education, 57(2), 187194. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/42894019Google Scholar
Baldwin, J. (1984). Notes of a native son (Vol. 39). Beacon Press. Boston, MAGoogle Scholar
Bartoș, S. E., & Hegarty, P. (2019). Negotiating theory when doing practice: A systematic review of qualitative research on interventions to reduce homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 66(9), 12621286. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1500780Google Scholar
Becerra-Culqui, T. A., Liu, Y., Nash, R., Cromwell, L., Flanders, W. D., Getahun, D., Giammattei, S. V., Hunkeler, E. M., Lash, T. L., Millman, A., Quinn, V. P., Robinson, B., Roblin, D., Sandberg, D. E., Silverberg, M. J., Tangpricha, V., & Goodman, M. (2018). Mental Health of Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Youth Compared With Their Peers. Pediatrics, 141(5), e20173845. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-3845CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, E. L. (1990). The bicultural life experience of career‐oriented black women.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11(6), 459477. http://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030110607CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belluck, P. (2019, June 12). N.I.H. head calls for end to all-male panels of scientists. New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2019/06/12/health/collins-male-science-panels.htmlGoogle Scholar
Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2011). Latino adolescents’ experiences of discrimination across the first 2 years of high school: Correlates and influences on educational outcomes. Child Development, 82(2), 508519. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01524.xGoogle Scholar
Bockting, W. O., Miner, M. H., Romine, R. E. S., Hamilton, A., & Coleman, E. (2013). Stigma, mental health, and resilience in an online sample of the US transgender population. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 943951. http://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2013.301241Google Scholar
Bodenhausen, G. V., & Richeson, J. A. (2010). Prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. In Baumeister, R. F. & Finkel, E. J. (Eds.), Advanced social psychology: The state of the science, pp. 341383. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bonam, C. M., Nair Das, V., Coleman, B. R., & Salter, P. (2019). Ignoring history, denying racism: Mounting evidence for the Marley hypothesis and epistemologies of ignorance. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(2), 257265. http://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617751583CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boykin, A. W., Jagers, R. J., Ellison, C. M., & Albury, A. (1997). Communalism: Conceptualization and measurement of an Afrocultural social orientation. Journal of Black Studies, 27(3), 409418. http://doi.org/10.1177/002193479702700308CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brannon, T. N. (2018). Reaffirming King’s vision: The power of participation in inclusive diversity efforts to benefit intergroup outcomes. Journal of Social Issues, 74(2), 355376. Special Issue: Commemorating 50th anniversary of Dr. King’s speech to behavioral scientists, American Psychological Association. http://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12273Google Scholar
Brannon, T. N., Carter, E. R., Murdock-Perriera, L. A., & Higginbotham, G. D. (2018). From backlash to inclusion for all: Instituting diversity efforts to maximize benefits across group lines. Social Issues and Policy Review, 12 (1), 5790. http://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12040 Brannon, T. N., Higginbotham, G. D., & Henderson, K. (2017). Class advantages and disadvantages are not so black and white: Intersectionality impacts rank and selves. Current Opinion in Psychology, 18, 117–122. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.08.029Google Scholar
Brannon, T. N., & Lin, A. (2020, August 10). “Pride and Prejudice” Pathways to Belonging:Implications for Inclusive Diversity Practices Within Mainstream Institutions. AmericanPsychologist. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000643Google Scholar
Brannon, T. N., Markus, H. R., & Taylor, V. J. (2015). “Two souls, two thoughts,” two self-schemas: Double consciousness can have positive academic consequences for African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(4), 586609. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0038992Google Scholar
Brannon, T. N., Taylor, V. J., Higginbotham, G. D., & Henderson, K. (2017). Selves in contact: How integrating perspectives on sociocultural selves and intergroup contact can inform theory and application on reducing inequality. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 11(7), 115. http://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12326CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branscombe, N. R. (1998). Thinking about one’s gender group’s privileges or disadvantages: Consequences for well‐being in women and men. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37(2), 167184. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1998.tb01163.xGoogle Scholar
Branscombe, N. R.(2004). A social psychological process perspective on collective guilt. In Branscombe, N. R. & Doosje, B. (Eds.), Collective guilt: International perspectives (pp. 320334). New York: Cambridge University Press. http://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199659180.003.0017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brassel, S. T., & Anderson, V. N. (2019). Who thinks outside the gender box? Feminism, gender self-esteem, and attitudes toward trans people. Sex Roles, 82, 447462 http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019–01066-4Google Scholar
Brennan-Ing, M., Seidel, L., Larson, B., & Karpiak, S. E. (2013). Social care networks and older LGBT adults: Challenges for the future. Journal of Homosexuality, 61(1), 2152. http://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2013.835235Google Scholar
Bronski, M. (2011). A queer history of the United States. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Broockman, D., & Kalla, J. (2016). Durably reducing transphobia: A field experiment on door-to-door canvassing. Science, 352(6282), 220224. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad9713Google Scholar
Bruce, K. M. F. (2016). Pride parades: How a parade changed the world. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Bryan, C. J., Walton, G. M., Rogers, T., & Dweck, C. S. (2011). Motivating voter turnout by invoking the self. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(31), 1265312656. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1103343108Google Scholar
Burks, D. J. (2011). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual victimization in the military: An unintended consequence of “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”? American Psychologist, 66(7), 604613. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0024609CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cameron, C. (2020, July 24). Trump presses limits on transgender rights over supreme court ruling. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.comGoogle Scholar
Cannon, Y., Speedlin, S., Avera, J., Robertson, D., Ingram, M., & Prado, A. (2017). Transition, connection, disconnection, and social media: Examining the digital lived experiences of transgender individuals. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 11(2), 6887. http://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2017.1310006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carbado, D. W. (2013). Colorblind intersectionality. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 38(4), 811845.Google Scholar
Case, K. A. (2007). Raising white privilege awareness and reducing racial prejudice: Assessing diversity course effectiveness. Teaching of Psychology, 34(4), 231235. http://doi.org/10.1080/00986280701700250CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, K. A. (Ed.). (2013). Deconstructing privilege: Teaching and learning as allies in the classroom. New York, NY Routledge.Google Scholar
Case, K. A., Iuzzini, J., & Hopkins, M. (2012). Systems of privilege: Intersections, awareness, and applications. Journal of Social Issues, 68(1), 110. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.15404560.2011.01732.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caughy, M. O. B., O’Campo, P. J., Randolph, S. M., & Nickerson, K. (2002). The influence of racial socialization practices on the cognitive and behavioral competence of African American preschoolers. Child Development, 73(5), 16111625. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00493CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cavalcante, A. (2018). Tumbling into queer utopias and vortexes: Experiences of LGBTQ social media users on Tumblr. Journal of Homosexuality, 66(12), 17151735. http://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1511131Google Scholar
Chaney, K. E., & Sanchez, D. T. (2017). Gender-inclusive bathrooms signal fairness across identity dimensions. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9(2), 245253. http://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617737601CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charles, R., & Ritz, D. (2004). Brother Ray: Ray Charles’ own story. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.Google Scholar
Chavous, T. M. (2000). The relationships among racial identity, perceived ethnic fit, and organizational involvement for African American students at a predominantly White university. Journal of Black Psychology, 26(1), 79100. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026001005Google Scholar
Cipolletta, S., Votadoro, R., & Faccio, E. (2017). Online support for transgender people: An analysis of forums and social networks. Health & Social Care in the Community, 25(5), 15421551. http://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12448Google Scholar
Cokley, K. O., & Chapman, C. (2008). The roles of ethnic identity, anti-White attitudes, and academic self-concept in African American student achievement. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal, 11(4), 349365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-008-9060-4Google Scholar
Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64, 170180. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0014564CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coulter, R. W. S., Kenst, K. S., Bowen, D. J., & Scout, P. (2014). Research funded by the National Institutes of Health on the Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Populations. American Journal of Public Health, 104(2), e105112. http://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2013.301501CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courtenay, W. H. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: A theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine, 50(10), 13851401. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00390-1Google Scholar
Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A., & O’Brien, L. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(3), 359378. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.359Google Scholar
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 12411299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608630. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.608CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curry, T. J. (1991). Fraternal bonding in the locker room: A profeminist analysis of talk about competition and women. Sociology of Sport Journal, 8(2), 119135.Google Scholar
Curry, T. J.(1998). Beyond the locker room: Campus bars and college athletes. Sociology of Sport Journal, 15(3), 205215. http://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.15.3.205Google Scholar
Davis, L. K., Schneider, B. E., Stoller, N. E., & Patton, C. (1997). Women resisting AIDS: Feminist strategies of empowerment. Contemporary Sociology, 26(1), 113. http://doi.org/10.2307/2076643Google Scholar
Degner, J., & Dalege, J. (2013). The apple does not fall far from the tree, or does it? A meta-analysis of parent-child similarity in intergroup attitudes. Psychological Bulletin, 139(6), 12701304. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0031436Google Scholar
Dehaan, S., Kuper, L. E., Magee, J. C., Bigelow, L., & Mustanski, B. S. (2013). The interplay between online and offline explorations of identity, relationships, and sex: A mixed-methods study with LGBT youth. Journal of Sex Research, 50(5), 421434. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.661489Google Scholar
DiAngelo, R. (2011). White fragility. International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, 3(3), 5470.Google Scholar
DiAngelo, R. (2018). White fragility: Why it’s so hard for white people to talk about racism. Boston, MA: Beacon PressGoogle Scholar
DiAngelo, R.(2016). What does it mean to be white?: Developing white racial literacy. New York, NY Peter Lang.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, J., Levine, M., Reicher, S., & Durrheim, K. (2012). Beyond prejudice: Are negative evaluations the problem and is getting us to like one another more the solution? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35(6), 411425. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X11002214Google Scholar
Douglass, R. P., Conlin, S. E., & Duffy, R. D. (2020). Beyond Happiness: Minority Stress and Life Meaning Among LGB Individuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 67(11), 15871602. http://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2019.1600900Google Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., & Fiske, S. T. (2012). Under the radar: How unexamined biases in decision- making processes in clinical interactions can contribute to health care disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 102(5), 945952. http://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300601CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004). Aversive racism. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 456.Google Scholar
Droogendyk, L., Wright, S. C., Lubensky, M., & Louis, W. R. (2016). Acting in solidarity: Cross‐group contact between disadvantaged group members and advantaged group allies. Journal of Social Issues, 72(2), 315334. http://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12168Google Scholar
Drushel, B. E. (2010). Virtually supportive: Self-disclosure of minority sexualities through online social networking sites. (pp. 76–86) In Pullen, C. & Cooper, M., Eds., LGBT identity and online new media. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dubois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk. Chicago, IL: A. C. McClurg and Company.Google Scholar
Eberhardt, J. L., & Fiske, S. T. (Eds.). (1998). Confronting racism: The problem and the response. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Ethier, K. A., & Deaux, K. (1994). Negotiating social identity when contexts change: Maintaining identification and responding to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 243251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.243Google Scholar
Fahrenthold, D. A. (2016). Trump recorded having extremely lewd conversation about women in 2005. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-recorded-having-extremely-lewd-conversation-about-women-in-2005/2016/10/07/3b9ce776-8cb4-11e6-bf8a-3d26847eeed4_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Feinberg, L. (2005). Transgender warriors: Making history from Joan of Arc to Dennis Rodman. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Ferber, A. L. (2012). The culture of privilege: Color‐blindness, post‐feminism and Christonormativity. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 6377. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01736.xGoogle Scholar
Fink, M., & Miller, Q. (2013). Trans media noments. Television & New Media, 15(7), 611626. http://doi.org/10.1177/1527476413505002Google Scholar
Fisher, P. H., & Brannon, T. N. ( in prep). Expanding the definition of masculinity: Interventions to shift sexist attitudes and increase allyship behaviors.Google Scholar
Fox, J., & Ralston, R. (2016). Queer identity online: Informal learning and teaching experiences of LGBTQ individuals on social media. Computers in Human Behavior, 65, 635642. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fryberg, S. A., & Eason, A. E. (2017). Making the invisible visible: Acts of commission and omission. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 554559. http://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417720959Google Scholar
Fuligni, A. J., Witkow, M., & Garcia, C. (2005). Ethnic Identity and the Academic Adjustment of Adolescents From Mexican, Chinese, and European Backgrounds. Developmental Psychology, 41(5), 799811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.799Google Scholar
Gibbons, F., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M., Wills, T., & Brody, G. (2004). Discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(4), 517529. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.4.517Google Scholar
Gleason, H. A., Livingston, N. A., Peters, M. M., Oost, K. M., Reely, E., & Cochran, B. N. (2016). Effects of state nondiscrimination laws on transgender and gender-nonconforming individuals perceived community stigma and mental health. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 20(4), 350362. http://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2016.1207582Google Scholar
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2018). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. In Social Cognition (pp. 116160). Editor: Fiske, Susan T.. City of publication: New York, NY. Routledge. http://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311414832Google Scholar
Goff, P. A., Steele, C. M., & Davies, P. G. (2008). The space between us: Stereotype threat and distance in interracial contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(1), 91107. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.91Google Scholar
Goffman, E. (2009). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Goldbach, J. T., Rhoades, H., Green, D., Fulginiti, A., & Marshal, M. P. (2019). Is there a need for LGBT-specific suicide crisis services? Crisis, 40(3), 203208. http://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000542Google Scholar
Gomillion, S. C., & Giuliano, T. A. (2011). The influence of media role models on gay, lesbian, and bisexual identity. Journal of Homosexuality, 58(3), 330354. http://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2011.546729Google Scholar
Graf, N., Brown, A., & Patten, E. (2018, April 9). The narrowing, but persistent, gender gap in pay. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.Google Scholar
Green, M., Bobrowicz, A., & Ang, C. S. (2015). The lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community online: discussions of bullying and self-disclosure in YouTube videos. Behaviour & Information Technology, 34(7), 704712. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2015.1012649Google Scholar
Griffith, K. H., & Hebl, M. R. (2002). The disclosure dilemma for gay men and lesbians: “Coming out” at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 11911199. http://doi.org/10.1037//0021-9010.87.6.1191Google Scholar
Gruber, J., Mendle, J., Lindquist, K., Schmader, T., Clark, L. A., Bliss-Moreau, E., Akinola, M., Atlas, L., M. Barch, D. M., Barrett, L. F., Borelli, J., Brannon, T., Bunge, S., Campos, B., Cantlon, J., Carter, R., Carter-Sowell, A., Chen, S., Craske, M., Crum, A., Cuddy, A. J.,… Williams, L. A. (in press). The future of women in psychological science. Perspectives in Psychological Science.Google Scholar
Gülgöz, S., Glazier, J. J., Enright, E. A., Alonso, D. J., Durwood, L. J., Fast, A. A., … Olson, K. R. (2019). Similarity in transgender and cisgender children’s gender development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(49), 2448024485. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1909367116Google Scholar
Haas, A. P., Rodgers, P. L., & Herman, J. L. (2014). Suicide attempts among transgender and gender non-conforming adults. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute, pp. 50, 59.Google Scholar
Hackimer, L., & Proctor, S. L. (2014). Considering the community influence for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Journal of Youth Studies, 18(3), 277290. http://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2014.944114Google Scholar
Henkel, K. E., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2006). Institutional discrimination, individual racism, and Hurricane Katrina. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 6(1), 99-124. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2006.00106.xGoogle Scholar
Herbst, J. H., Jacobs, E. D., Finlayson, T. J., Mckleroy, V. S., Neumann, M. S., & Crepaz, N. (2007). Estimating HIV prevalence and risk behaviors of transgender persons in the United States: A systematic review. AIDS and Behavior, 12(1), 117. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-007-9299-3Google Scholar
Hobbs, A. (2014). A chosen exile. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hofstra, B., Kulkarni, V. V., Galvez, S. M. N., He, B., Jurafsky, D., & McFarland, D. A. (2020). The diversity–innovation paradox in science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1915378117Google Scholar
Holloway, J. E. (Ed.). (2005). Africanisms in American culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Hudson, K. D. (2018). Identity-conscious services for diverse patients: A descriptive analysis of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender-focused federally qualified community health centers. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 30(3), 282298. http://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2018.1478353Google Scholar
Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for Future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747770. http://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747Google Scholar
Hughto, J. M. W., Reisner, S. L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2015). Transgender stigma and health: A critical review of stigma determinants, mechanisms, and interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 147, 222231. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.010Google Scholar
Jackson, S. D. (2017). “Connection is the antidote”: Psychological distress, emotional processing, and virtual community building among LGBTQ students after the Orlando shooting. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(2), 160168. http://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000229Google Scholar
Jaramillo, R. F. (2019, May 10). Why can’t men say “I love you” to each other? New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/10/style/modern-love-college-i-love-you-man-.htmlGoogle Scholar
Jay, K., & Young, A. (1972). Out of the closets: Voices of gay liberation. New York, NY: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Jenzen, O. (2017). Trans youth and social media: Moving between counterpublics and the wider web. Gender, Place & Culture, 24(11), 16261641. http://doi.org/10.1080/0966369x.2017.1396204Google Scholar
Johnson, S. E., Richeson, J. A., & Finkel, E. J. (2011). Middle class and marginal? Socioeconomic status, stigma, and self-regulation at an elite university. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(5), 838852. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0021956Google Scholar
Jones, J. M. (2003). TRIOS: A psychological theory of the African legacy in American culture. Journal of Social Issues, 59(1), 217242.Google Scholar
Jones, K. N., & Brewster, M. E. (2017). From awareness to action: Examining predictors of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) activism for heterosexual people. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 87(6), 680689. http://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000219Google Scholar
Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R., & Nosek, B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25(6), 881919. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00402.xGoogle Scholar
Kattari, S. K., Walls, N. E., Whitfield, D. L., & Magruder, L. L. (2016). Racial and ethnic differences in experiences of discrimination in accessing social services among transgender/gender-nonconforming people. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 26(3), 217235. http://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2016.1242102Google Scholar
Katznelson, I. (2005). When affirmative action was white: An untold history of racial inequality in twentieth-century America. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Kerrigan, M. F. (2012). Transgender discrimination in the military: The new don’t ask, don’t tell. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 18(3), 500518. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0025771Google Scholar
Kiang, L., Yip, T., Gonzales‐Backen, M., Witkow, M., & Fuligni, A. J. (2006). Ethnic identity and the daily psychological well‐being of adolescents from Mexican and Chinese backgrounds. Child Development, 77(5), 13381350. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00938.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klar, M., & Kasser, T. (2009). Some benefits of being an activist: Measuring activism and its role in psychological well-being. Political Psychology, 30(5), 755777. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00724.xGoogle Scholar
Knowles, E. D., Lowery, B. S., Chow, R. M., & Unzueta, M. M. (2014). Deny, distance, or dismantle? How white Americans manage a privileged identity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9, 594609. http://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614554658Google Scholar
Kraus, M. W., Piff, P. K., & Keltner, D. (2011). Social class as culture: The convergence of resources and rank in the social realm. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 246250. http://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411414654Google Scholar
Kubicek, K., Mcneeley, M., Holloway, I. W., Weiss, G., & Kipke, M. D. (2012). “It’s like our own little world”: Resilience as a factor in participating in the Ballroom community subculture. AIDS and Behavior, 17(4), 15241539. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-012-0205-2Google Scholar
Lee, J. (2002). Racial and ethnic achievement gap trends: Reversing the progress toward equity? Educational Researcher, 31(1), 312. http://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X031001003Google Scholar
Levine, C. S., Markus, H. R., Austin, M. K., Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2019). Students of color show health advantages when they attend schools that emphasize the value of diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(13), 60136018. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812068116Google Scholar
Levy, D. J., Heissel, J. A., Richeson, J. A., & Adam, E. K. (2016). Psychological and biological responses to race-based social stress as pathways to disparities in educational outcomes. American Psychologist, 71(6), 455473. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0040322Google Scholar
Levitt, H. M. (2019). A psychosocial genealogy of LGBTQ+ gender: An empirically based theory of gender and gender identity cultures. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(3), 275297. http://doi.org/10.1177/0361684319834641CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4), 3446. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1946.tb02295.xGoogle Scholar
Li, M. (2019). Priming mediated vicarious intergroup contact: How narrative focus influences attitude changes toward gay people, same-sex family, and social dominance. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 39(2), 151174. http://doi.org/10.1177/0276236618810203Google Scholar
Liu, W. M. (2017). White male power and privilege: The relationship between White supremacy and social class. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(4), 349. http://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000227Google Scholar
Lorde, A. (1982, February). Malcolm X weekend. Retrieved from www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/1982-audre-lorde-learning-60s/Google Scholar
Lowery, B. S., Unzueta, M. M., Knowles, E. D., & Goff, P. A. (2006). Concern for the in-group and opposition to affirmative action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(6), 961. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.961CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyness, K. S., & Grotto, A. R. (2018). Women and leadership in the United States: Are we closing the gender gap? Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5, 227265. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104739Google Scholar
Lytle, A., & Levy, S. R. (2015). Reducing heterosexuals’ prejudice toward gay men and lesbian women via an induced cross-orientation friendship. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(4), 447455. http://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000135Google Scholar
Mahalik, J. R., Cournoyer, R. J., DeFranc, W., Cherry, M., & Napolitano, J. M. (1998). Men’s gender role conflict and use of psychological defenses. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45(3), 247. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.45.3.247Google Scholar
Major, B., & O’Brien, L. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 393421. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137Google Scholar
Marche, G. (2019). Sexuality, subjectivity, and LGBTQ militancy in the United States. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam Press, pp. 2556. http://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvkjb3qs.6Google Scholar
Markus, H. R. (2008). Pride, prejudice, and ambivalence: Toward a unified theory of race and ethnicity. The American Psychologist, 63(8), 651670. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.8.651Google Scholar
Markus, H. R.(2017). American = independent? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(5), 855866. http://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617718799Google Scholar
Markus, H.R., & Moya, P. (Eds.). (2010). Doing race: 21 essays forthe 21st century. New York: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar
Mbiti, J. S. (1970). African religions and philosophy. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
McCluney, C. L., Robotham, K., Lee, S., Smith, R., & Durkee, M. (2019, November 15). The cost of code-switching. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2019/11/the-costs-of-codeswitchingGoogle Scholar
Mcinroy, L. B., & Craig, S. L. (2015). Transgender representation in offline and online media: LGBTQ youth perspectives. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 25(6), 606617. http://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2014.995392Google Scholar
McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. In Rothenberg, P. S. (Ed.), Race, class, and gender in the United States: An integrated study (6th ed. pp. 188192). New York: WorthGoogle Scholar
Mendoza-Denton, R., Downey, G., Purdie, V. J., Davis, A., & Pietrzak, J. (2002). Sensitivity to status-based rejection: Implications for African American students’ college experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 896918. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.896Google Scholar
Meyer, I. H., & Northridge, M. E. (Eds.). (2007). The health of sexual minorities: Public health perspectives on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender populations. Springer, Boston, MA Springer Science & Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-31334-4Google Scholar
Miller, D. T., Taylor, B., & Buck, M. L. (1991). Gender gaps: Who needs to be explained? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(1), 5. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.5Google Scholar
Moleiro, C., & Pinto, N. (2015). Sexual orientation and gender identity: review of concepts, controversies and their relation to psychopathology classification systems. Frontiers in psychology, 6, 1511. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01511Google Scholar
Movement Advancement Project (MAP). (2006). Nondiscrimination Laws. Retrieved August 08, 2020, from https://www.lgbtmap.org/equality-maps/non_discrimination_lawsGoogle Scholar
Murphy, M. C., Steele, C. M., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Signaling threat: How situational cues affect women in math, science, and engineering settings. Psychological Science, 18(10), 879885. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01995.xGoogle Scholar
Nash, J. C. (2008). Re-thinking intersectionality. Feminist Review, 89(1), 115.Google Scholar
Nelson, J. C., Adams, G., & Salter, P. S. (2013). The Marley hypothesis: Denial of racism reflects ignorance of history. Psychological Science, 24(2), 213218. http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612451466Google Scholar
Newheiser, A.-K., Barreto, M., & Tiemersma, J. (2017). People like me don’t belong here: Identity concealment is associated with negative workplace experiences. Journal of Social Issues, 73(2), 341358. http://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12220Google Scholar
Nier, J. A., & Gaertner, S. L. (2012). The challenge of detecting contemporary forms of discrimination. Journal of Social Issues, 68(2), 207220. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2012.01745.xGoogle Scholar
Nobles, W. W. (1991). African philosophy: Foundations of Black psychology. In Jones, R. L (Ed.), Black psychology (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: Cobb & Henry.Google Scholar
Nouvilas-Pallejà, E., Silván-Ferrero, P., Apodaca, M. J. F.-R. D., & Molero, F. (2018). Stigma consciousness and subjective well-being in lesbians and gays. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(4), 11151133. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9862-1Google Scholar
Novak, N. L., Geronimus, A. T., & Martinez-Cardoso, A. M. (2017). Change in birth outcomes among infants born to Latina mothers after a major immigration raid. International Journal of Epidemiology, 46(3), 839849. http://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw346Google Scholar
Obama, M. (2014, January 16). Remarks by the President and First Lady at College Opportunity Summit. Retrieved from https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/realitycheck/the-press-office/2014/01/16/remarks-president-and-first-lady-college-opportunity-summitGoogle Scholar
Olson, K. R., Durwood, L., Demeules, M., & Mclaughlin, K. A. (2016). Mental health of transgender children who are supported in their identities. Pediatrics, 137(3). http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-3223Google Scholar
Oluo, I. (2019). So you want to talk about race. New York, NY Seal Press.Google Scholar
Page-Gould, E., Mendoza-Denton, R., & Tropp, L. R. (2008). With a little help from my cross-group friend: Reducing anxiety in intergroup contexts through cross-group friendship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(5), 10801094. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.5.1080Google Scholar
Parker, K., Horowitz, J., & Mahl, B. (2016). On Views of Race and Inequality, Blacks and Whites are Worlds Apart: About Four-in-ten Blacks are Doubtful that the US Will Ever Achieve Racial Equality. Pew Research Center.Google Scholar
Paluck, E. L., Shepherd, H., & Aronow, P. M. (2016). Changing climates of conflict: A social network experiment in 56 schools. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(3), 566571. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514483113Google Scholar
Perez-Brumer, A., Day, J. K., Russell, S. T., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2017). Prevalence and correlates of suicidal ideation among transgender youth in California: Findings from a representative, population-based sample of high school students. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(9), 739746. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.06.010Google Scholar
Phillips, L. T., & Lowery, B. S. (2015). The hard-knock life? Whites claim hardships in response to racial inequity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 61, 1218.Google Scholar
Phillips, L. T., & Lowery, B. S.(2018). Herd invisibility: The psychology of racial privilege. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(3), 156162. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.06.008Google Scholar
Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271281. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271Google Scholar
Pincus, F. L. (1996). Discrimination comes in many forms: Individual, institutional, and structural. American Behavioral Scientist, 40(2), 186194. http://doi.org/10.1177/0002764296040002009Google Scholar
Pinto, R. M., Melendez, R. M., & Spector, A. Y. (2008). Male-to-female transgender individuals building social support and capital from within a gender-focused network. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services: Issues in Practice, Policy & Research, 20(3), 203220. “https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/10538720802235179https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720802235179 Google Scholar
Poteat, T., Malik, M., Scheim, A., & Elliott, A. (2017). HIV prevention among transgender populations: knowledge gaps and evidence for action. Current HIV/AIDS Reports, 14(4), 141152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-017-0360-1Google Scholar
Poteat, T., Wirtz, A., Malik, M., Cooney, E., Cannon, C., Hardy, W. D., … & Yamanis, T. (2019). A gap between willingness and uptake: findings from mixed methods research on HIV prevention among black and Latina transgender women. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 82(2), 131140. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000002112Google Scholar
Priest, N., Paradies, Y., Trenerry, B., Truong, M., Karlsen, S., & Kelly, Y. (2013). A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people. Social Science & Medicine, 95, 115127. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.11.031Google Scholar
Purdie-Greenaway, V. (2018, March) The face of psychology departments worldwide: How diverse are we really? Paper presented at the Society for Personality and Social Psychology Annual Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia.Google Scholar
Purdie-Vaughns, V., Steele, C. M., Davies, P. G., Ditlmann, R., & Crosby, J. R. (2008). Social identity contingencies: How diversity cues signal threat or safety for African Americans in mainstream institutions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(4), 615630. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.615Google Scholar
Quintana, S. M. (2007). Racial and ethnic identity: Developmental perspectives and research Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 259270. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.259Google Scholar
Ramsey, G. P. (2003). Race music: Black cultures from bebop to hip-hop (Vol. 7). Berkeley, CA University of California Press.Google Scholar
Reimer, N. K., Becker, J. C., Benz, A., Christ, O., Dhont, K., Klocke, U., … Hewstone, M. (2017). Intergroup contact and social change. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43(1), 121136. http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167216676478Google Scholar
Rheinschmidt-Same, M., John-Henderson, N. A., & Mendoza-Denton, R. (2017). Ethnically-based theme house residency and expected discrimination predict downstream markers of inflammation among college students. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(1), 102111. http://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616662130Google Scholar
Rivas‐Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., Lee, R. M., … & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014a). Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: Implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes. Child Development, 85(1), 4057. http://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12200Google Scholar
Rivas‐Drake, D., Syed, M., Umaña‐Taylor, A., Markstrom, C., French, S., Schwartz, S. J., … & Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group. (2014b). Feeling good, happy, and proud: A meta‐analysis of positive ethnic–racial affect and adjustment. Child Development, 85(1),77102. http://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12175Google Scholar
Rivera, S. (2013). Queens in exile, the forgotten ones. In Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries: Survival, Revolt, and Queer Antagonist Struggle. Untorelli Press. https://untorellipress.noblogs.org/files/2011/12/STAR.pdfGoogle Scholar
Rood, B. A., Maroney, M. R., Puckett, J. A., Berman, A. K., Reisner, S. L., & Pantalone, D. W. (2017). Identity concealment in transgender adults: A qualitative assessment of minority stress and gender affirmation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 87(6), 704713. http://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000303Google Scholar
Russell, S. T., Pollitt, A. M., Li, G., & Grossman, A. H. (2018). Chosen name use is linked to reduced depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and suicidal behavior among transgender youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 63(4), 503505. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.02.003Google Scholar
Salter, P. S., Adams, G., & Perez, M. J. (2018). Racism in the structure of everyday worlds: A cultural-psychological perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(3), 150155. http://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417724239Google Scholar
Samuels, R., Stanley-Becker, I., & Janes, C. (2019, November 27). Pete Buttigieg says being gay helps him relate to the black struggle. Some reject that notion. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/pete-buttigeg-says-being-gay-helps-him-relate-to-the-black-struggle-some-reject-that-notion/2019/11/27/a29b48ec-113a-11ea-b0fc-62cc38411ebb_story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Schmader, T., & Sedikides, C. (2018). State authenticity as fit to environment: The implications of social identity for fit, authenticity, and self-segregation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 22(3), 228259. http://doi.org/10.1177/1088868317734080Google Scholar
Schneider, B., & Stoller, N. (1995). Women Resisting AIDS: Feminist Strategies of Empowerment. Temple University Press. Retrieved August 9, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt14bssgkGoogle Scholar
Seelman, K. L. (2016). Transgender adults’ access to college bathrooms and housing and the relationship to suicidality. Journal of Homosexuality, 63(10), 13781399. http://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2016.1157998Google Scholar
Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 1839. http://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2Google Scholar
Shapiro, E. (2008). “Trans” cending barriers. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 16(3–4), 165179. http://doi.org/10.1300/j041v16n03_11Google Scholar
Shelton, J. N., Yip, T., Eccles, J. S., Chatman, C. M., Fuligni, A., & Wong, C. (2005). Ethnic identity as a buffer of psychological adjustment tostress. In Downey, G., Eccles, J. S., & Chatman, C. M. (Eds.), Navigatingthe future: Social identity, coping, and life tasks (pp. 96–115). NewYork: Russell Sage FoundationGoogle Scholar
Silva, D. T. D., Bouris, A., Voisin, D., Hotton, A., Brewer, R., & Schneider, J. (2019). Social networks moderate the syndemic effect of psychosocial and structural factors on HIV risk among young Black transgender women and men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior, 24(1), 192205. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02575-9Google Scholar
Sotomayor, S. (2013). My beloved world. New York, NY: Alfred Knopf Incorporated.Google Scholar
Smalley, K. B., Warren, J. C., & Barefoot, K. N. (2016). Differences in health risk behaviors across understudied LGBT subgroups. Health Psychology, 35(2), 103114. http://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000231Google Scholar
Smith, T. B., & Silva, L. (2011). Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(1), 4260. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021528Google Scholar
Snapshot: LGBT Equality by State. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.lgbtmap.org/equality-mapsGoogle Scholar
Snibbe, A. C., & Markus, H. R. (2005). You can’t always get what you want: Educational attainment, agency, and choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(4), 703720. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.703Google Scholar
Spears Brown, C., & Bigler, R. S. (2005). Children’s perceptions of discrimination: A developmental model. Child Development, 76(3), 533553. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00862.xGoogle Scholar
Spencer, S. J., Logel, C., & Davies, P. G. (2016). Stereotype threat. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 415437. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-073115-103235Google Scholar
Spencer, M. B., Noll, E., Stoltzfus, J., & Harpalani, V. (2001). Identity and school adjustment: Revisiting the "acting White" assumption. Educational Psychologist, 36(1), 2130. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3601_3Google Scholar
Steele, C. M. (2011). Whistling Vivaldi: How stereotypes affect us and what we can do. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., Brannon, T. N., Markus, H. R., & Nelson, J. E. (2015). Feeling at home in college: Fortifying school‐relevant selves to reduce social class disparities in higher education. Social Issues and Policy Review, 9(1), 124. http://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12008Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., Dittmann, A. G., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2017). Social class and models of competence: How gateway institutions disadvantage working-class Americans and how to intervene. In Dweck, C., Elliot, A., & Yeager, D. (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (2nd ed.): Theory and application. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., & Markus, H. R. (2011). When choice does not equal freedom: A sociocultural analysis of agency in working-class American contexts. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(1), 3341. http://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610378757Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C. S., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 11781197. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0027143Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., & Destin, M. (2014). Closing the social-class achievement gap: A difference-education intervention improves first-generation students’ academic performance and all students’ college transition. Psychological Science, 25(4), 943953. http://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613518349Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., Markus, H. R., Bergsieker, H. B., & Eloul, L. (2009). Why did they “choose” to stay? Perspectives of Hurricane Katrina observers and survivors. Psychological Science, 20(7), 878886. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02386.xStephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Fryberg, S. A. (2012). Social class disparities in health and education: Reducing inequality by applying a sociocultural self model of behavior. Psychological Review, 119(4), 723–744. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0029028Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, L. T. (2014). Social class culture cycles: How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 611634. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115143Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Townsend, S. S. (2007). Choice as an act of meaning: The case of social class. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(5), 814830. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.814Google Scholar
Stephens, N. M., & Townsend, S. S. (2013). Rank is not enough: Why we need a sociocultural perspective to understand social class. Psychological Inquiry, 24(2), 126130. http://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2013.795099Google Scholar
Stewart, T. L., Latu, I. M., Branscombe, N. R., Phillips, N. L., & Denney, H. T. (2012). White privilege awareness and efficacy to reduce racial inequality improve White Americans’ attitudes toward African Americans. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 1127. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2012.01733.xGoogle Scholar
Strauss, V. (2019, January 24). CDC: Nearly 2 percent of high school students identify as transgender – and more than one-third of them attempt suicide. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2019/01/24/cdc-nearly-percent-high-school-students-identify-transgender-more-than-one-third-them-attempt-suicide/Google Scholar
Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. Hoboken, NJ John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Sue, D. W., Alsaidi, S., Awad, M. N., Glaeser, E., Calle, C. Z., & Mendez, N. (2019). Disarming racial microaggressions: Microintervention strategies for targets, White allies, and bystanders. American Psychologist, 74(1), 128142. http://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000296Google Scholar
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271286. http://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271Google Scholar
Sullivan, A. (2020, March 20). How to survive a plague. New York Magazine. Retrieved from https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2020/03/andrew-sullivan-how-to-survive-the-coronavirus-pandemic.htmlGoogle Scholar
Swank, E., Woodford, M. R., & Lim, C. (2013). Antecedents of pro-LGBT advocacy among sexual minority and heterosexual college students. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 10(4), 317332. http://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-013-0136-3Google Scholar
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 3153. http://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00200Google Scholar
Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C. (1986). An integrative theory of group conflict. In Austin, W. G., Worchel, S. (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Tatum, B. D. (2017). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?: And other conversations about race. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Taylor, V. J., Brannon, T. N., & Valladares, J. V. (2019). Intergroup conflict through a sociocultural lens: How collective histories and memories impact present-day intergroup understandings and misunderstandings. In Mukherjee, S. and Salter, P. S. (Eds.), History and collective memory from the margins: A global perspective. (pp. 3–30). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Publishers.Google Scholar
Tozer, E. E., & Hayes, J. A. (2004). Why do individuals seek conversion therapy? The Counseling Psychologist, 32(5), 716740. http://doi.org/10.1177/0011000004267563Google Scholar
Turban, J. L., Beckwith, N., Reisner, S. L., & Keuroghlian, A. S. (2019). Association between recalled exposure to gender identity conversion efforts and psychological distress and suicide attempts among transgender adults. JAMA Psychiatry, 77(1), 19. http://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.2285Google Scholar
Unzueta, M. M., & Binning, K. R. (2012). Diversity is in the eye of the beholder: How concern for the in-group affects perceptions of racial diversity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(1), 2638. http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211418528Google Scholar
Valdiserri, R. O., Holtgrave, D. R., Poteat, T. C., & Beyrer, C. (2019). Unraveling Health Disparities Among Sexual and Gender Minorities: A Commentary on the Persistent Impact of Stigma. Journal of Homosexuality, 66(5), 571589. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1422944Google Scholar
Vaid, U. (1995). Virtual equality: The mainstreaming of gay and lesbian liberation. New York, NY: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Venn-Brown, A. (2007). A life of unlearning: A journey to find the truth. Australia New Holland Publishers.Google Scholar
Walton, G. M. (2014). The new science of wise psychological interventions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 7382. http://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413512856Google Scholar
Walton, G., & Cohen, G. (2007). A question of belonging: Rrace, social fit, and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 8296. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82Google Scholar
Walton, G., & Cohen, G.(2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331(6023), 14471451. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1198364Google Scholar
Walton, G. M., & Wilson, T. D. (2018). Wise interventions: Psychological remedies for social and personal problems. Psychological Review, 125(5), 617655. http://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000115Google Scholar
Webster, L. (2019). “I am I”: Self-constructed transgender identities in internet-mediated forum communication. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 256, 129146. http://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2018-2015Google Scholar
Wernick, L. J. (2012). Privilege: Organizing young people with wealth to support social justice. Social Service Review, 86(2), 323345. http://doi.org/10.1086/666874Google Scholar
Wernick, L. J., Kulick, A., & Chin, M. (2017). Gender identity disparities in bathroom safety and wellbeing among high school students. Journal of youth and adolescence, 46(5), 917930. doi: 10.1007/s10964-017-0652-1Google Scholar
Wessel, J. (2017). The Importance of Allies and Allied Organizations: Sexual Orientation Disclosure and Concealment at Work. Journal of Social Issues. 73. 240254. 10.1111/josi.12214.Google Scholar
Williams, D. P., Joseph, N., Hill, L. K., SollersIII, J. J., Vasey, M. W., Way, B. M., … & Thayer, J. F. (2019). Stereotype threat, trait perseveration, and vagal activity: Evidence for mechanisms underpinning health disparities in Black Americans. Ethnicity & Health, 24(8), 909926. http://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2017.1378803Google Scholar
Woodford, M. R., Kulick, A., Garvey, J. C., Sinco, B. R., & Hong, J. S. (2018). LGBTQ policies and resources on campus and the experiences and psychological well-being of sexual minority college students: Advancing research on structural inclusion. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 5(4), 445456. http://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000289Google Scholar
Wong, C. F., Schrager, S. M., Holloway, I. W., Meyer, I. H., & Kipke, M. D. (2014). Minority stress experiences and psychological well-being: The impact of support from and connection to social networks within the Los Angeles house and ball communities. Prevention Science, 15(1), 4455. doi: 10.1007/s11121-012-0348-4.Google Scholar
Worthen, M. G. F. (2017). “Gay equals White”? Racial, ethnic, and sexual identities and attitudes toward LGBT individuals among college students at a Bible Belt university. The Journal of Sex Research, 55(8), 9951011. http://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1378309Google Scholar
Yeager, D. S., & Walton, G. M. (2011). Social-psychological interventions in education: They’re not magic. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 267301. http://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311405999Google Scholar
Young, A., & Jay, K. (1992). Out of the closets: Voices of gay liberation. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Selves as Solutions to Social Inequalities
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Selves as Solutions to Social Inequalities
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Selves as Solutions to Social Inequalities
Available formats
×