Element contents
Series: Elements in Child Development
Stress in Childhood
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 November 2025
Summary
The innocence of childhood does not protect against exposure to stress. More than half of US children are exposed to adverse experiences, such as abuse, neglect, witnessing domestic violence, parental psychopathology, or divorce, and all children encounter normative stressors like school transitions and challenges with peers. This Element discusses research on stress psychobiology during childhood, from birth to age ten. The Element focuses on important contexts that shape children's responses to stress and their coping capacities, including the family system, peers, schools, neighborhoods, the broader culture, as well as clinical settings. Sources of stress and resilience in each context are described.
Information
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in Child DevelopmentOnline ISBN: 9781009420228Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 04 December 2025
References
Aafjes-van Doorn, K., Kamsteeg, C., & Silberschatz, G. (2020). Cognitive mediators of the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and adult psychopathology: A systematic review. Development and Psychopathology, 32(3), 1017–1029. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419001317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adam, E. K., Hittner, E. F., Thomas, S. E., Villaume, S. C., & Nwafor, E. E. (2020). Racial discrimination and ethnic racial identity in adolescence as modulators of HPA axis activity. Development and Psychopathology, 32(5), 1669–1684. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457942000111X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, R., Bishop, S., & Taylor, J. L. (2020). Peer victimization. In Volkmar, F. R. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders (pp. 1–8). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6435-8_102151-2.Google Scholar
Adams, R. E., Santo, J. B., & Bukowski, W. M. (2011). The presence of a best friend buffers the effects of negative experiences. Developmental Psychology, 47(6), 1786–1791. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Afifi, T. O., & MacMillan, H. L. (2011). Resilience following Child Maltreatment: A Review of Protective Factors. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(5), 266–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371105600505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agrawal, A., Garg, R., & Urajnik, D. (2010). Appraisal of school-based stressors by fourth-grade children: A mixed method approach. Creative Education, 01(03), Article 03. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2010.13029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahnert, L., Harwardt-Heinecke, E., Kappler, G., Eckstein-Madry, T., & Milatz, A. (2012). Student–teacher relationships and classroom climate in first grade: How do they relate to students’ stress regulation? Attachment & Human Development, 14(3), 249–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.673277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aisenberg, E., & Herrenkohl, T. (2008). Community violence in context: Risk and resilience in children and families. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(3), 296–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507312287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aiyer, S. M., Zimmerman, M. A., Morrel-Samuels, S., & Reischl, T. M. (2015). From broken windows to busy streets: A community empowerment perspective. Health Education & Behavior, 42(2), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198114558590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alen, N. V., Deer, L. K., Karimi, M., et al. (2021). Children’s altruism following acute stress: The role of autonomic nervous system activity and social support. Developmental Science, 24(5), e13099. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13099.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alen, N. V., Hostinar, C. E., & Luthar, S. S. (2024). Promoting resilience of children, parents, and families in the service of health promotion. In Bornstein, Marc H. and Shah, Prachi E. (Eds.), APA Handbook of Pediatric Psychology, Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, and Developmental Science (pp. 325–344). American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Alen, N. V., Shields, G. S., Nemer, A., et al. (2022). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between parenting and child autonomic nervous system activity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 139, 104734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alen, N. V., Sloan, R. P., Seeman, T. E., & Hostinar, C. E. (2020). Childhood parental warmth and heart rate variability in midlife: Implications for health. Personal Relationships, 27(3), 506–525. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychological Association (2018). Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved August 15, 2024, https://dictionary.apa.org/psychological-distress.Google Scholar
Andrews, K., Dunn, J. R., Prime, H., et al. (2021). Effects of household chaos and parental responsiveness on child executive functions: A novel, multi-method approach. BMC Psychology, 9, 147. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00651-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Apter-Levi, Y., Pratt, M., Vakart, A., et al. (2016). Maternal depression across the first years of life compromises child psychosocial adjustment; relations to child HPA-axis functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 64, 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.11.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arens, A. K., & Morin, A. J. S. (2016). Relations between teachers’ emotional exhaustion and students’ educational outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(6), 800–813. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Argabright, S. T., Moore, T. M., Visoki, E., DiDomenico, G. E., Taylor, J. H., & Barzilay, R. (2022). Association between racial/ethnic discrimination and pubertal development in early adolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 140, 105727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armitage, R. (2021). Bullying in children: Impact on child health. BMJ Paediatrics Open, 5(1), e000939. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjpo-2020-000939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arvidson, J., Kinniburgh, K., Howard, K., et al. (2011). Treatment of complex trauma in young children: Developmental and cultural considerations in application of the ARC intervention model. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 4(1), 34–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2011.545046.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
August, G. J., Realmuto, G. M., Hektner, J. M., & Bloomquist, M. L. (2001). An integrated components preventive intervention for aggressive elementary school children: The early risers program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(4), 614–626. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.69.4.614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Austin, J. L., Jeffries, E. F., Winston, W., & Brady, S. S. (2022). Race-related stressors and resources for resilience: Associations with emotional health, conduct problems, and academic investment among African American early adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(4), 544–553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.05.020.Google ScholarPubMed
Badanes, L. S., Watamura, S. E., & Hankin, B. L. (2011). Hypocortisolism as a potential marker of allostatic load in children: Associations with family risk and internalizing disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 23(3), 881–896. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941100037X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bates, C. R., Nicholson, L. M., Rea, E. M., Hagy, H. A., & Bohnert, A. M. (2021). Life interrupted: Family routines buffer stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30(11), 2641–2651. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02063-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bathory, E., & Tomopoulos, S. (2017). Sleep regulation, physiology and development, sleep duration and patterns, and sleep hygiene in infants, toddlers, and preschool-age children. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care, 47(2), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2016.12.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1, Pt.2), 1–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behnsen, P., Buil, M., Koot, S., Huizink, A., & van Lier, P. (2018). Classroom social experiences in early elementary school relate to diurnal cortisol levels. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 87, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.09.025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, M. A. (2020). Mother-child behavioral and physiological synchrony. In Benson, Janette B. (Ed.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior (Vol. 58, pp. 163–188). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2020.01.006.Google ScholarPubMed
Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of racial/ethnic discrimination during adolescence: Does the source of discrimination matter? Developmental Psychology, 49(8), 1602–1613. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennett, A. C., Brewer, K. C., & Rankin, K. M. (2012). The association of child mental health conditions and parent mental health status among U.S. children, 2007. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 16(6), 1266–1275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-011-0888-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernard, K., Hostinar, C. E., & Dozier, M. (2019). Longitudinal associations between attachment quality in infancy, C-reactive protein in early childhood, and BMI in middle childhood: Preliminary evidence from a CPS-referred sample. Attachment & Human Development, 21(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2018.1541513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernard, K., Meade, E., & Dozier, M. (2013). Parental synchrony and nurturance as targets in an attachment based intervention: Building upon mary ainsworth’s insights about mother-infant interaction. Attachment & Human Development, 15(5–6), 507–523. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2013.820920.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bethell, C. D., Newacheck, P., Hawes, E., & Halfon, N. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences: Assessing the impact on health and school engagement and the mitigating role of resilience. Health Affairs (Project Hope), 33(12), 2106–2115. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2014.0914.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C. (2010). Stress and the development of self-regulation in context: Stress and the development of self-regulation. Child Development Perspectives, 4(3), 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2010.00145.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2012). Child development in the context of adversity: Experiential canalization of brain and behavior. The American Psychologist, 67(4), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolger, K. E., & Patterson, C. J. (2003). Sequelae of child maltreatment: Vulnerability and resilience. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities (pp. 156–181). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511615788.009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borelli, J. L., Burkhart, M. L., Rasmussen, H. F., Smiley, P. A., & Hellemann, G. (2018). Children’s and mothers’ cardiovascular reactivity to a standardized laboratory stressor: Unique relations with maternal anxiety and overcontrol. Emotion, 18(3), 369–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borelli, J. L., Gaskin, G., Smiley, P., et al. (2023). Multisystem physiological reactivity during help-seeking for attachment needs in school-aged children: Differences as a function of attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 25(1), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2021.1913874.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Cultural approaches to parenting. Parenting, 12(2–3), 212–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.683359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowen Center for the Study of the Family (2024). Introduction to the Eight Concepts. May 6, 2024, www.thebowencenter.org/introduction-eight-concepts.Google Scholar
Braddock, A. S., Phad, A., Tabak, R., et al. (2021). Assessing racial and ethnic discrimination in children: A scoping review of available measures for child health disparities research. Health Equity, 5(1), 727–737. https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2021.0008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., et al. (2017). A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD. Clinical Psychology Review, 58, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y., Murry, V. M., et al. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five‐year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77(5), 1170–1189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00927.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brosschot, J. F., Verkuil, B., & Thayer, J. F. (2017). Exposed to events that never happen: Generalized unsafety, the default stress response, and prolonged autonomic activity. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 74(Pt B), 287–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broyles, S. T., Staiano, A. E., Drazba, K. T., et al. (2012). Elevated C-reactive protein in children from risky neighborhoods: Evidence for a stress pathway linking neighborhoods and inflammation in children. PLoS ONE, 7(9), e45419. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buettner, C. K., Jeon, L., Hur, E., & Garcia, R. E. (2016). Teachers’ social–emotional capacity: Factors associated with teachers’ responsiveness and professional commitment. Early Education and Development, 27(7), 1018–1039. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2016.1168227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buhler-Wassmann, A. C., Hibel, L. C., Fondren, K., & Valentino, K. (2021). Child diurnal cortisol differs based on profiles of maternal emotion socialization in high risk, low income, and racially diverse families. Developmental Psychobiology, 63(3), 538–555. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.22048.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bunea, I., Szentágotai-Tătar, A. & Miu, A. C. (2017). Early-life adversity and cortisol response to social stress: A meta-analysis. Translational Psychiatry, 7, 1274. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-017-0032-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burdette, H. L., & Whitaker, R. C. (2005). Resurrecting free play in young children: Looking beyond fitness and fatness to attention, affiliation, and affect. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159(1), 46. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.159.1.46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burke Harris, N. (2018). The Deepest Well: Healing the Long-Term Effects of Childhood Adversity. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Google Scholar
Burke, N. J., Hellman, J. L., Scott, B. G., Weems, C. F., & Carrion, V. G. (2011). The impact of adverse childhood experiences on an urban pediatric population. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(6), 408–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.02.006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burlew, A. K., Peteet, B. J., McCuistian, C., & Miller-Roenigk, B. D. (2019). Best practices for researching diverse groups. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(3), 354–368. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrne, M. L., Badcock, P. B., Simmons, J. G., et al. (2017). Self-reported parenting style is associated with children’s inflammation and immune activation. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(3), 374–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cafaro, C. L., Gonzalez Molina, E., Patton, E., McMahon, S. D., & Brown, M. (2023). Meta-analyses of teacher-delivered trauma-based and trauma-informed care interventions. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 15(7), 1177–1187. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare (2025). Program registry. Retrieved May 31, 2025, www.cebc4cw.org/registry/.Google Scholar
Callaghan, B. L., Fields, A., Gee, D. G., et al. (2019). Mind and gut: Associations between mood and gastrointestinal distress in children exposed to adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000087.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carro, N., Ibar, C., D’Adamo, P., et al. (2023). Hair cortisol reduction and social integration enhancement after a mindfulness-based intervention in children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 49(1), 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.13008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, J. R., & Goldstein, D. S. (2015). Sympathoneural and adrenomedullary responses to mental stress. Comprehensive Physiology, 5(1), 119–146. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c140030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Causadias, J. M., Vitriol, J. A., & Atkin, A. L. (2018). Do we overemphasize the role of culture in the behavior of racial/ethnic minorities? Evidence of a cultural (mis)attribution bias in American psychology. American Psychologist, 73(3), 243–255.10.1037/amp0000099CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cecil-Karb, R., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2009). Childhood body mass index in community context: Neighborhood safety, television viewing, and growth trajectories of BMI. Health & Social Work, 34(3), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/34.3.169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Center on the Developing Child (2024). Toxic stress. Retrieved August 15, 2024, https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/toxic-stress/.Google Scholar
Chen, E., Hayen, R., Le, V., et al. (2019). Neighborhood social conditions, family relationships, and childhood asthma. Pediatrics, 144(2), e20183300. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, E., Lam, P. H., Yu, T., & Brody, G. H. (2023). Racial disparities in school belonging and prospective associations with diabetes and metabolic syndrome. JAMA Pediatrics, 177(2), 141–148.10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.3856CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheng, Z., Su, J., Zhang, K., Jiang, H., & Li, B. (2022). Epigenetic mechanism of early life stress-induced depression: Focus on the neurotransmitter systems. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 10, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2022.929732.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Children’s Defense Fund (2023). 2023 State of America’s Children Report. Child Population. Retrieved May 31, 2025, www.childrensdefense.org/tools-and-resources/the-state-of-americas-children/soac-child-population/.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2013). Annual research review: Resilient functioning in maltreated children – past, present, and future perspectives: Resilient functioning in maltreated children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(4), 402–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02608.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2006). A multiple‐levels‐of‐analysis perspective on resilience: Implications for the developing brain, neural plasticity, and preventive interventions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094(1), 248–258. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1376.029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2005). Child maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1(Volume 1, 2005), 409–438. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ciula, R., & Skinner, C. (2015). Income and beyond: Taking the measure of child deprivation in the United States. Child Indicators Research, 8(3), 491–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-014-9246-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Deblinger, E. (2006). Treating Trauma and Traumatic Grief in Children and Adolescents (pp. xvi, 256). Guilford Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohodes, E. M., McCauley, S., & Gee, D. G. (2021). Parental buffering of stress in the time of COVID-19: Family-level factors may moderate the association between pandemic-related stress and youth symptomatology. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 49(7), 935–948. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-020-00732-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohodes, E. M., Sisk, L. M., Keding, T. J., et al. (2023). Characterizing experiential elements of early-life stress to inform resilience: Buffering effects of controllability and predictability and the importance of their timing. Development and Psychopathology, 35(5), 2288–2301. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579423000822.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75(2), 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00673.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coley, R. L., Lynch, A. D., & Kull, M. (2015). Early exposure to environmental chaos and children’s physical and mental health. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 32, 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.03.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E. (1987). Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 7(3), 275–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(87)90037-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., Elder, G. H., et al. (1992). A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. Child Development, 63(3), 526–541. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conrey, S. C., Burrell, A. R., Brokamp, C., et al. (2022). Comparison of neighborhood deprivation index and food desert status as environmental predictors of early childhood obesity. International Public Health Journal, 14(3), 263–276.Google ScholarPubMed
Copeland, W. E., Wolke, D., Lereya, S. T., et al. (2014). Childhood bullying involvement predicts low-grade systemic inflammation into adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(21), 7570–7575. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1323641111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowen, P. S. (2001). Effectiveness of a parent education intervention for at-risk families. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 6(2), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6155.2001.tb00124.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowe, J., Lacy, C., & Columbus, Y. (2018). Barriers to food security and community stress in an urban food desert. Urban Science, 2(2), 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci2020046.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crusto, C. A., Whitson, M. L., Walling, S. M., et al. (2010). Posttraumatic stress among young urban children exposed to family violence and other potentially traumatic events. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(6), 716–724. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daníelsdóttir, S., & Ingudóttir, J. (2020). The First 1000 Days in the Nordic Countries: A Situation Analysis. Nordic Council of Ministers. https://doi.org/10.6027/nord2020-051.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, P. T., Cummings, E. M., & Winter, M. A. (2004). Pathways between profiles of family functioning, child security in the interparental subsystem, and child psychological problems. Development and Psychopathology, 16(3), 525–550. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579404004651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, C., & Turner‐Cobb, J. M. (2023). The perceived stress scale for kids (PeSSKi): Initial development of a brief measure for children aged 7–11 years. Stress and Health, 39(1), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. P., & Glynn, L. M. (2024). Annual Research Review: The power of predictability – patterns of signals in early life shape neurodevelopment and mental health trajectories. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 65(4), 508–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deater-Deckard, K., Lansford, J. E., Malone, P. S., et al. (2011). The association between parental warmth and control in thirteen cultural groups. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(5), 790–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DePasquale, C. E. (2020). A systematic review of caregiver–child physiological synchrony across systems: Associations with behavior and child functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 32(5), 1754–1777. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420001236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dettling, A. C., Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (1999). Cortisol levels of young children in full-day childcare centers: Relations with age and temperament. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 24(5), 519–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(99)00009-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., Goodman, W. B., Murphy, R., O’Donnell, K., & Sato, J. (2013). Toward population impact from home visiting. Zero to Three, 33(3), 17–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Doom, J. R., Cook, S. H., Sturza, J., et al. (2018). Family conflict, chaos, and negative life events predict cortisol activity in low-income children. Developmental Psychobiology, 60(4), 364–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doom, J. R., Vanzomeren-Dohm, A. A., & Simpson, J. A. (2016). Early unpredictability predicts increased adolescent externalizing behaviors and substance use: A life history perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 28(4 Pt 2), 1505–1516. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415001169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doretto, V., & Scivoletto, S. (2018). Effects of early neglect experience on recognition and processing of facial expressions: A systematic review. Brain Sciences, 8(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8010010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dowdney, L. (2000). Childhood bereavement following parental death. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(7), 819–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doyle, C., & Cicchetti, D. (2017). From the cradle to the grave: The effect of adverse caregiving environments on attachment and relationships throughout the lifespan. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 24(2), 203–217. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12192.Google Scholar
Dozier, M., Lindhiem, O., Lewis, E., et al. (2009). Effects of a foster parent training program on young children’s attachment behaviors: Preliminary evidence from a randomized clinical trial. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 26(4), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-009-0165-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lindhiem, O., et al.(2006). Developing evidence-based interventions for foster children: An example of a randomized clinical trial with infants and toddlers. Journal of Social Issues, 62(4), 767–785. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00486.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drake, B., & Rank, M. R. (2009). The racial divide among American children in poverty: Reassessing the importance of neighborhood. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(12), 1264-1271.10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.05.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubow, E. F., & Tisak, J. (1989). The relation between stressful life events and adjustment in elementary school children: The role of social support and social problem-solving skills. Child Development, 60(6), 1412–1423. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubowitz, H., Feigelman, S., Lane, W., & Kim, J. (2009). Pediatric primary care to help prevent child maltreatment: The safe environment for every kid (SEEK) model. Pediatrics, 123(3), 858–864. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-1376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, G. J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1994). Economic deprivation and early childhood development. Child Development, 65(2), 296–318. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunning, D., Tudor, K., Radley, L., et al. (2022). Do mindfulness-based programmes improve the cognitive skills, behaviour and mental health of children and adolescents? An updated meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Ment Health, 25(3), 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2022-300464.Google ScholarPubMed
Dvir, Y., Ford, J. D., Hill, M., & Frazier, J. A. (2014). Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 22(3), 149. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N. (2020). Findings, issues, and new directions for research on emotion socialization. Developmental Psychology, 56(3), 664–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000906.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9(4), 241–273. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elledge, L. C., Elledge, A. R., Newgent, R. A., & Cavell, T. A. (2016). Social risk and peer victimization in elementary school children: The protective role of teacher-student relationships. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(4), 691–703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0074-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. J., Figueredo, A. J., Brumbach, B. H., & Schlomer, G. L. (2009). Fundamental dimensions of environmental risk. Human Nature, 20(2), 204–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-009-9063-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
England-Mason, G., & Gonzalez, A. (2020). Intervening to shape children’s emotion regulation: A review of emotion socialization parenting programs for young children. Emotion, 20(1), 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Espelage, D. L., Hong, J. S., Rao, M. A., & Thornberg, R. (2015). Understanding ecological factors associated with bullying across the elementary to middle school transition in the United States. Violence and Victims, 30(3), 470–487. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.vv-d-14-00046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W. (2004). The Environment of Childhood Poverty. American Psychologist, 59(2), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fang, R., Zhang, R., Hosseini, E., et al. (2022). Prevent over-fitting and redundancy in physiological signal analyses for stress detection. 2022 IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (BIBM), 2585–2588. https://doi.org/10.1109/BIBM55620.2022.9995121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, R. (2007). Parent-infant synchrony and the construction of shared timing; physiological precursors, developmental outcomes, and risk conditions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 48(3–4), 329–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01701.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Spanking, corporal punishment and negative long-term outcomes: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(1), 196–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.11.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, A. V., Godwin, K. E., & Seltman, H. (2014). Visual environment, attention allocation, and learning in young children: When too much of a good thing may be bad. Psychological Science, 25(7), 1362–1370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614533801.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleckman, J. M., Tokarz, S., Claire Craig-Kuhn, M., Wallace, M. E., & Theall, K. P. (2022). Neighborhood matters: Neighborhood violence, collective efficacy, and social emotional development in early childhood. Children and Youth Services Review, 143, 106700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraguas, D., Díaz-Caneja, C. M., Ayora, M., et al. (2021). Assessment of school anti-bullying interventions: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA Pediatrics, 175(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.3541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freiberg, H. J. (2005). School Climate: Measuring, Improving, and Sustaining Healthy Learning Environments. Routledge.10.4324/9780203983980CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fremont, W. P. (2003). School refusal in children and adolescents. American Family Physician, 68(8), 1555–1561.Google ScholarPubMed
Fries, E., Hesse, J., Hellhammer, J., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2005). A new view on hypocortisolism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(10), 1010–1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.04.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galán, C. A., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., & Wilson, M. N. (2017). Neighborhood deprivation during early childhood and conduct problems in middle childhood: Mediation by aggressive response generation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(5), 935–946. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0209-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garmezy, N. (1971). Vulnerability research and the issue of primary prevention. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 41(1), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1971.tb01111.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaylord‐Harden, N. K., Burrow, A. L., & Cunningham, J. A. (2012). A cultural‐asset framework for investigating successful adaptation to stress in African American youth. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 264–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00236.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilgoff, R., Mengelkoch, S., Elbers, J., et al. (2024). The stress phenotyping framework: A multidisciplinary biobehavioral approach for assessing and therapeutically targeting maladaptive stress physiology. Stress, 27(1), 2327333. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2024.2327333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilliam, W. S., Maupin, A. N., & Reyes, C. R. (2016). Early childhood mental health consultation: Results of a statewide random-controlled evaluation. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(9), 754–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.006.Google ScholarPubMed
Ginwright, S. (2021, January 19). The Future of Healing: Shifting From Trauma-Informed Care to Healing-Centered Engagement – Youth Research and Evaluation eXchange. https://youthrex.com/blog/the-future-of-healing-shifting-from-trauma-informed-care-to-healing-centered-engagement/.Google Scholar
Gleason, T. R., Tarsha, M. S., Kurth, A. M., & Narvaez, D. (2021). Opportunities for free play and young children’s autonomic regulation. Developmental Psychobiology, 63(6), e22134. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.22134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glynn, L. M., Davis, E. P., Luby, J. L., Baram, T. Z., & Sandman, C. A. (2021). A predictable home environment may protect child mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Neurobiology of Stress, 14, 100291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2020.100291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
González Ramírez, M. L., García Vázquez, J. P., Rodríguez, M. D., et al. (2023). Wearables for stress management: A scoping review. Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland), 11(17), 2369. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11172369.Google ScholarPubMed
Goodman, W. B., Dodge, K. A., Bai, Y., Murphy, R. A., & O’Donnell, K. (2021). Effect of a universal postpartum nurse home visiting program on child maltreatment and emergency medical care at 5 years of age: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open, 4(7), e2116024. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.16024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granic, I., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: A dynamic systems approach. Psychological Review, 113(1), 101–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.1.101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grasso, D., Boonsiri, J., Lipschitz, D., et al. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The missed diagnosis. Child Welfare, 88(4), 157–176.Google ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, M. T., Kusche, C. A., Cook, E. T., & Quamma, J. P. (1995). Promoting emotional competence in school-aged children: The effects of the PATHS curriculum. Development and Psychopathology, 7(1), 117–136. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400006374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groeneveld, M. G., Vermeer, H. J., Linting, M., et al. (2013). Children’s hair cortisol as a biomarker of stress at school entry. Stress, 16(6), 711–715. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2013.817553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, D., Garvey, C., Julion, W., et al. (2009). Efficacy of the Chicago parent program with low-income African American and Latino parents of young children. Prevention Science, 10(1), 54–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-008-0116-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruenewald, T. L., Karlamangla, A. S., Hu, P., et al. (2012). History of socioeconomic disadvantage and allostatic load in later life. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 74(1), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.09.037.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grusec, J. E. (2011). Socialization processes in the family: Social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62(1), 243–269. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R. (2000). Early adversity and the development of stress reactivity and regulation. In Nelson, Charles A. (Ed.), The Effects of Early Adversity on Neurobehavioral Development (163–200). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R. (2021). Forty years of research on stress and development: What have we learned and future directions. The American Psychologist, 76(9), 1372–1384. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000893.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Brodersen, L., Nachmias, M., Buss, K., & Rigatuso, J. (1996). Stress reactivity and attachment security. Developmental Psychobiology, 29(3), 191–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199604)29:3<191::AID-DEV1>3.0.CO;2-M.3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., DePasquale, C. E., Reid, B. M., Donzella, B., & Miller, B. S. (2019). Pubertal stress recalibration reverses the effects of early life stress in postinstitutionalized children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(48), 23984–23988. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1909699116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002). Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27(1–2), 199–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4530(01)00045-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Doom, J. R., & Esposito, E. A. (2015). Psychoneuroendocrinology of Stress. In Lamb, M. E. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science (pp. 1–46). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy304.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Sebanc, A. M., Tout, K., Donzella, B., & van Dulmen, M. M. H. (2003). Peer rejection, temperament, and cortisol activity in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 43(4), 346–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.10144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Talge, N. M., & Herrera, A. (2009). Stressor paradigms in developmental studies: What does and does not work to produce mean increases in salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(7), 953–967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.02.010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development. Development and Psychopathology, 13(3), 515–538. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579401003066.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutteling, B. M., Weerth, C. de, & Buitelaar, J. K. (2005). Prenatal stress and children’s cortisol reaction to the first day of school. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(6), 541–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.01.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hakman, M., Chaffin, M., Funderburk, B., & Silovsky, J. F. (2009). Change trajectories for parent-child interaction sequences during parent-child interaction therapy for child physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(7), 461–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.08.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, J., & Lindorff, A. (2017). Children’s transition to school: Relationships between preschool attendance, cortisol patterns, and effortful control. The Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 34(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1017/edp.2017.3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early teacher–child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72(2), 625–638. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hang, S., Jost, G. M., Guyer, A. E., et al. (2024). Understanding the development of chronic loneliness in youth. Child Development Perspectives, 18(1), 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harding, K., Galano, J., Martin, J., Huntington, L., & Schellenbach, C. J. (2007). Healthy families America® effectiveness: A comprehensive review of outcomes. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 34(1–2), 149–179. https://doi.org/10.1300/J005v34n01_08.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, N. B. (2018). The Deepest Well: Healing the Long-Term Effects of Childhood Adversity. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Google Scholar
Harrison, L. J., & Murray, E. (2015). Stress, coping and wellbeing in kindergarten: Children’s perspectives on personal, interpersonal and institutional challenges of school. International Journal of Early Childhood, 47(1), 79–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-014-0127-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, P. A., & Narayan, G. (2003). Differences in behavior, psychological factors, and environmental factors associated with participation in school sports and other activities in adolescence. Journal of School Health, 73(3), 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2003.tb03585.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrist, A. W., Pettit, G. S., Dodge, K. A., & Bates, J. E. (1994). Dyadic synchrony in mother-child interaction: Relation with children’s subsequent kindergarten adjustment. Family Relations, 43(4), 417. https://doi.org/10.2307/585373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartup, W. W. (1996). The company they keep: Friendships and their developmental significance. Child Development, 67(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131681.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartup, W. W., & Abecassis, M. (2002). Friends and enemies. In Smith, P. K. & Hart, C. H. (Eds.), Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Social Development (pp. 286–306). Blackwell.Google Scholar
Hastings, P. D., Ruttle, P. L., Serbin, L. A., et al. (2011). Adrenocortical responses to strangers in preschoolers: Relations with parenting, temperament, and psychopathology. Developmental Psychobiology, 53(7), 694–710. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Havighurst, S. S., Wilson, K. R., Harley, A. E., et al. (2013). “Tuning into Kids”: Reducing young children’s behavior problems using an emotion coaching parenting program. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 44(2), 247–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0322-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, J. D., Marsh, L. T. S., & Anderson, K. M. (2023). Planting the seeds of culturally responsive, equity-centered, and trauma-informed attitudes among urban educators. Urban Education, 60(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859231175663.Google Scholar
Hektner, J. M., August, G. J., Bloomquist, M. L., Lee, S., & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2014). A 10-year randomized controlled trial of the Early Risers conduct problems preventive intervention: Effects on externalizing and internalizing in late high school. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(2), 355–360. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035678.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hentges, R. F., Davies, P. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2015). Temperament and interparental conflict: The role of negative emotionality in predicting child behavioral problems. Child Development, 86(5), 1333–1350. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herman, K. C., Hickmon-Rosa, J., & Reinke, W. M. (2018). Empirically derived profiles of teacher stress, burnout, self-efficacy, and coping and associated student outcomes. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 20(2), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300717732066.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herzberg, M. P., & Gunnar, M. R. (2020). Early life stress and brain function: Activity and connectivity associated with processing emotion and reward. NeuroImage, 209, 116493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibel, L. C., Granger, D. A., Blair, C., Finegood, E. D., & Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2015). Maternal-child adrenocortical attunement in early childhood: Continuity and change. Developmental Psychobiology, 57(1), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2023). Cyberbullying: Identification, Prevention, and Response (2023 ed.). Cyberbullying Research Center. https://cyberbullying.org.Google Scholar
Hjort, J., Sølvsten, M., & Wüst, M. (2017). Universal investment in infants and long-run health: Evidence from denmark’s 1937 home visiting program. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 9(4), 78–104. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150087.Google Scholar
Hodgdon, H. B., Blaustein, M., Kinniburgh, K., Peterson, M. L., & Spinazzola, J. (2016). Application of the ARC model with adopted children: Supporting resiliency and family well being. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 9(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-015-0050-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hohl, B. C., Kondo, M. C., Kajeepeta, S., et al. (2019). Creating safe and healthy neighborhoods with place-based violence interventions. Health Affairs (Project Hope), 38(10), 1687–1694. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2019.00707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hostinar, C. E., Johnson, A. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2015a). Early social deprivation and the social buffering of cortisol stress responses in late childhood: An experimental study. Developmental Psychology, 51(11), 1597–1608. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hostinar, C. E., Johnson, A. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2015b). Parent support is less effective in buffering cortisol stress reactivity for adolescents compared to children. Developmental Science, 18(2), 281–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hostinar, C. E., & Miller, G. E. (2019). Protective factors for youth confronting economic hardship: Current challenges and future avenues in resilience research. The American Psychologist, 74(6), 641–652. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hostinar, C. E., Stellern, S. A., Schaefer, C., Carlson, S. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2012). Associations between early life adversity and executive function in children adopted internationally from orphanages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(Suppl 2), 17208–17212. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1121246109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hostinar, C. E., Sullivan, R. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2014). Psychobiological mechanisms underlying the social buffering of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis: A review of animal models and human studies across development. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 256–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032671.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hostinar, C. E., Swartz, J. R., Alen, N. V., Guyer, A. E., & Hastings, P. D. (2023). The role of stress phenotypes in understanding childhood adversity as a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology. Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science, 132(3), 277–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoyniak, C. P., Quiñones-Camacho, L. E., Camacho, M. C., et al. (2021). Adversity is linked with decreased parent-child behavioral and neural synchrony. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 48, 100937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100937.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huguley, J. P., Wang, M.-T., Vasquez, A. C., & Guo, J. (2019). Parental ethnic–racial socialization practices and the construction of children of color’s ethnic–racial identity: A research synthesis and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 145(5), 437–458. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphrey, N., Kalambouka, A., Wigelsworth, M., et al. (2011). Measures of social and emotional skills for children and young people: A systematic review. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 71(4), 617–637. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164410382896.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, K. L., & Zeanah, C. H. (2015). Deviations from the expectable environment in early childhood and emerging psychopathology. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(1), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutchings, J., Bywater, T., Daley, D., et al. (2007). Parenting intervention in sure start services for children at risk of developing conduct disorder: Pragmatic randomised controlled trial. BMJ, 334(7595), 678. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39126.620799.55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Intrator, J., Tannen, J., & Massey, D. S. (2016). Segregation by race and income in the United States 1970–2010. Social Science Research, 60, 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.08.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isaac, A. J., Rodriguez, A. M., D’Anna-Hernandez, K., et al. (2023). Preschool-aged children’s hair cortisol and parents’ behavior, psychopathology, and stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 151, 106052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106052.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isumi, A., Doi, S., Ochi, M., Kato, T., & Fujiwara, T. (2023). School- and community-level protective factors for resilience among chronically maltreated children in Japan. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 58(3), 477–488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02322-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Polo-Tomás, M., & Taylor, A. (2007). Individual, family, and neighborhood factors distinguish resilient from non-resilient maltreated children: A cumulative stressors model. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(3), 231–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.03.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, S. R., McFarquhar, T., Stevens, S., et al. (2015). Interactive effects of early and recent exposure to stressful contexts on cortisol reactivity in middle childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(2), 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeon, L., Buettner, C. K., Grant, A. A., & Lang, S. N. (2019). Early childhood teachers’ stress and children’s social, emotional, and behavioral functioning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 61, 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.02.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jewett, J., & Peterson, K. (2002). Stress and Young Children. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, Children’s Research Center, University of Illinois, 51 Gerty Dr. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED471911.Google Scholar
Jiang, H., Justice, L., Purtell, K. M., Lin, T.-J., & Logan, J. (2021). Prevalence and prediction of kindergarten-transition difficulties. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 55, 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.10.006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jimenez, M. E., Wade, R. Jr, Lin, Y., Morrow, L. M., & Reichman, N. E. (2016). Adverse experiences in early childhood and kindergarten outcomes. Pediatrics, 137(2), e20151839. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-1839.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, A. E., Bruce, J., Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2011). Growth delay as an index of allostatic load in young children: Predictions to disinhibited social approach and diurnal cortisol activity. Development and Psychopathology, 23(3), 859–871. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J. H. (1982). Life events as stressors in childhood and adolescence. In Lahey, B. B. & Kazdin, A. E. (Eds.), Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (pp. 219–253). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9811-0_6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston-Brooks, C. H., Lewis, M. A., Evans, G. W., & Whalen, C. K. (1998). Chronic stress and illness in children: The role of allostatic load. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60(5), 597–603. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-199809000-00015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, S. M., & Doolittle, E. J. (2017). Social and emotional learning: Introducing the issue. The Future of Children, 27(1), 3–11.10.1353/foc.2017.0000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, G. M., Hang, S., Shaikh, U., & Hostinar, C. E. (2023). Understanding adolescent stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Opinion in Psychology, 52, 101646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jutte, D. P., Miller, J. L., & Erickson, D. J. (2015). Neighborhood adversity, child health, and the role for community development. Pediatrics, 135(Supplement_2), S48–S57. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-3549F.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juvonen, J., Nishina, A., & Graham, S. (2006). Ethnic diversity and perceptions of safety in urban middle schools. Psychological Science, 17(5), 393–400. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01718.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalvin, C. B., Bierman, K. L., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. (2016). Emotional reactivity, behavior problems, and social adjustment at school entry in a high-risk sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(8), 1527–1541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0139-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kearney, C. A. (2003). Bridging the gap among professionals who address youths with school absenteeism: Overview and suggestions for consensus. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34(1), 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.34.1.57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kearney, C. A. (2008). School absenteeism and school refusal behavior in youth: A contemporary review. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(3), 451–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.07.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., et al. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. British Journal of Psychiatry, 197(5), 378–385. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khang, Y.-H., June, K. J., Park, S. E., et al. (2022). Is a universal nurse home visiting program possible? A cross-sectional survey of nurse home visitation service needs among pregnant women and mothers with young children. PLoS ONE, 17(8), e0272227. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimbro, R. T., Brooks-Gunn, J., & McLanahan, S. (2011). Young children in urban areas: Links among neighborhood characteristics, weight status, outdoor play, and television watching. Social Science & Medicine, 72(5), 668–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.12.015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, N. J., & Bernstein, G. A. (2001). School refusal in children and adolescents: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(2), 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200102000-00014.Google Scholar
Kiyimba, N., & O’Reilly, M. (2020). The clinical use of subjective units of distress scales (SUDs) in child mental health assessments: A thematic evaluation. Journal of Mental Health, 29(4), 418–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2017.1340616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kliewer, W., Sosnowski, D. W., Noh, H., McGuire, K., & Wright, A. W. (2019). Peer victimization and cortisol production in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 24(4), e12172. https://doi.org/10.1111/jabr.12172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koss, K. J., Lawler, J. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2020). Early adversity and children’s regulatory deficits: Does post-adoption parenting facilitate recovery in post-institutionalized children? Development and Psychopathology, 32(3), 879–896. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419001226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koss, K. J., Mliner, S. B., Donzella, B., & Gunnar, M. R. (2016). Early adversity, hypocortisolism, and behavior problems at school entry: A study of internationally adopted children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 66, 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.12.018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhlman, K. R., Repetti, R. L., Reynolds, B. M., & Robles, T. F. (2016). Change in parent-child conflict and the HPA-axis: Where should we be looking and for how long? Psychoneuroendocrinology, 68, 74–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.02.029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ladd, G. W., & Burgess, K. B. (2001). Do relational risks and protective factors moderate the linkages between childhood aggression and early psychological and school adjustment? Child Development, 72(5), 1579–1601. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ladd, G. W., Kochenderfer‐Ladd, B., Eggum, N. D., Kochel, K. P., & McConnell, E. M. (2011).Characterizing and comparing the friendships of anxious‐solitary and unsociable preadolescents. Child Development, 82(5), 1434–1453. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01632.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lagattuta, K. H. (2005). When you shouldn’t do what you want to do: Young children’s understanding of desires, rules, and emotions. Child Development, 76(3), 713–733. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00873.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langley, A. K., Gonzalez, A., Sugar, C. A., Solis, D., & Jaycox, L. (2015). Bounce back: Effectiveness of an elementary school-based intervention for multicultural children exposed to traumatic events. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(5), 853–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000051.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J., Gartstein, M. A., Zhou, Q., Colder, C. R., & Jacques, D. T. (2024). Temperament and Child Development in Context. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/9781009521840CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, D. J., Heissel, J. A., Richeson, J. A., & Adam, E. K. (2016). Psychological and biological responses to race-based social stress as pathways to disparities in educational outcomes. American Psychologist, 71(6), 455–473. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewallen, A. C., & Neece, C. L. (2015). Improved social skills in children with developmental delays after parent participation in MBSR: The role of parent–child relational factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(10), 3117–3129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0116-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y., Jia, W., Yan, N., et al. (2023). Associations between chronic stress and hair cortisol in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 329, 438–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2023.02.123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y., Li, H., Decety, J., & Lee, K. (2013). Experiencing a natural disaster alters children’s altruistic giving. Psychological Science, 24(9), 1686–1695. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613479975.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, A. F., Horn, P. V., & Ippen, C. G. (2005). Toward evidence-based treatment: Child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(12), 1241–1248. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000181047.59702.58.Google ScholarPubMed
Liberman, Z., & Shaw, A. (2019). Children use similarity, propinquity, and loyalty to predict which people are friends. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 184, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2019.03.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, A. F., & Van Horn, P. (2004). Don’t Hit my Mommy: A Manual for Child Parent Psychotherapy with Young Witnesses of Family Violence. Zero to Three Press.Google Scholar
Lisonbee, J. A., Mize, J., Payne, A. L., & Granger, D. A. (2008). Children’s cortisol and the quality of teacher–child relationships in child care. Child Development, 79(6), 1818–1832. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01228.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, V., & Cimpian, A. (2025). In the United States, children are more likely than adults to condone discrimination. Cognitive Psychology, 156, 101703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, C. H., & Doan, S. N. (2020). Psychosocial stress contagion in children and families during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical Pediatrics, 59(9–10), 853–855. https://doi.org/10.1177/0009922820927044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, S., Fisher, P. A., Schlueter, L. J., et al. (2021). A brief video-coaching intervention buffers young children’s vulnerability to the impact of caregivers’ depressive symptoms: Examination of differential susceptibility. Development and Psychopathology, 33(5), 1685–1700. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421000687.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lobo, F. M., & Lunkenheimer, E. (2020). Understanding the parent-child coregulation patterns shaping child self-regulation. Developmental Psychology, 56(6), 1121–1134. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lowell, D. I., Carter, A. S., Godoy, L., Paulicin, B., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2011). A randomized controlled trial of child FIRST: A comprehensive home-based intervention translating research into early childhood practice. Child Development, 82(1), 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01550.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lucas-Thompson, R. G., & Goldberg, W. A. (2011). Family relationships and children’s stress responses. In Benson, J. B. (Ed.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior (Vol. 40, pp. 243–299). JAI. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386491-8.00007-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lund, J. I., Toombs, E., Radford, A., Boles, K., & Mushquash, C. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences and executive function difficulties in children: A systematic review. Child Abuse & Neglect, 106, 104485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lunkenheimer, E., Ram, N., Skowron, E. A., & Yin, P. (2017). Harsh parenting, child behavior problems, and the dynamic coupling of parents’ and children’s positive behaviors. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(6), 689–698. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S. (2003). The culture of affluence: Psychological costs of material wealth. Child Development, 74(6), 1581–1593. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00625.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., & Becker, B. E. (2002). Privileged but Pressured? A study of affluent youth. Child Development, 73(5), 1593–1610. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., Doernberger, C. H., & Zigler, E. (1993). Resilience is not a unidimensional construct: Insights from a prospective study of inner-city adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 703–717. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400006246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Goldstein, A. (2004). Children’s exposure to community violence: Implications for understanding risk and resilience. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology : The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 33(3), 499–505. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., & Latendresse, S. J. (2005). Children of the affluent: Challenges to well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(1), 49–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00333.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, T., Davis, S. L., Johnson, A. H., et al. (2022). Definitions, theories, and measurement of stress in children. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 66, 202–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2022.07.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Machlin, L., Miller, A. B., Snyder, J., McLaughlin, K. A., & Sheridan, M. A. (2019). Differential associations of deprivation and threat with cognitive control and fear conditioning in early childhood. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 13, 80. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00080.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKenzie, M. J., Nicklas, E., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Waldfogel, J. (2015). Spanking and children’s externalizing behavior across the first decade of life: Evidence for transactional processes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(3), 658–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0114-y.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, A. L., Tomfohr-Madsen, L., & Tough, S. (2020). Neighborhood socio-economic factors and associations with infant sleep health. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 19(4), 458–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2020.1778478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maercker, A. (2021). Development of the new CPTSD diagnosis for ICD-11. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 8(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-021-00148-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maguire-Jack, K., & Showalter, K. (2016). The protective effect of neighborhood social cohesion in child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect, 52, 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.12.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maier, S. F., & Watkins, L. R. (2010). Role of the medial prefrontal cortex in coping and resilience. Brain Research, 1355, 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.08.039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcelo, A. K., & Yates, T. M. (2019). Young children’s ethnic–racial identity moderates the impact of early discrimination experiences on child behavior problems. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(2), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, C. G., Kim, H. K., Bruce, J., & Fisher, P. A. (2014). Child diurnal cortisol rhythms, parenting quality, and externalizing behaviors in preadolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 40, 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.11.015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marzano, R. J., & Marzano, J. S. (2003). Classroom Management That Works: Research-Based Strategies for Every Teacher. ASCD.Google Scholar
Masarik, A. S., & Conger, R. D. (2017). Stress and child development: A review of the family stress model. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.05.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maschi, T., Perez, R. M., & Tyson, E. (2010). Exploring the relationship between exposure to violence, perceptions of neighborhood safety, and children’s adaptive functioning: Clinical and community implications. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 20(6), 744–761. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911351003749144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S. (2018). Resilience theory and research on children and families: Past, present, and promise. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(1), 12–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Barnes, A. J. (2018). Resilience in children: Developmental perspectives. Children, 5(7), 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/children5070098.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Garmezy, N., Tellegen, A., et al. (1988). Competence and stress in school children: The moderating effects of individual and family qualities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29(6), 745–764. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1988.tb00751.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matheny, A. P., Wachs, T. D., Ludwig, J. L., & Phillips, K. (1995). Bringing order out of chaos: Psychometric characteristics of the confusion, hubbub, and order scale. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16(3), 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(95)90028-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathewson, K. J., Miskovic, V., Cunningham, C. E., et al. (2012). Salivary cortisol, socioemotional functioning, and academic performance in anxious and non-anxious children of elementary and middle school age: Early education & development. Early Education & Development, 23(1), 74–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2012.626388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maxwell, L. E. (2010). Chaos outside the home: The school environment. In Evans, G. W. & Wachs, T. D. (Eds.), Chaos and Its Influence on Children’s Development: An Ecological Perspective (pp. 83–95). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12057-006.Google Scholar
McEwen, B. (2000). Stress, definition and concepts of. In Fink, G. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Stress (Vol. 3, pp. 508–509). Academic Press.Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (2007). Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain. Physiological Reviews, 87(3), 873–904. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00041.2006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., & Akil, H. (2020). Revisiting the stress concept: Implications for affective disorders. Journal of Neuroscience, 40(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0733-19.2019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2010). What’s in a name? Integrating homeostasis, allostasis and stress. Hormones and Behavior, 57(2), 105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.09.011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGinnis, R. S., McGinnis, E. W., Hruschak, J., et al. (2018). Rapid anxiety and depression diagnosis in young children enabled by wearable sensors and machine learning. 2018 40th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 3983–3986. https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2018.8513327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Humphreys, K. L., Belsky, J., & Ellis, B. J. (2021). The value of dimensional models of early experience: Thinking clearly about concepts and categories. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1463–1472. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691621992346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Tibu, F., et al. (2015). Causal effects of the early caregiving environment on development of stress response systems in children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(18), 5637–5642. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1423363112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Weissman, D., & Bitrán, D. (2019). Childhood adversity and neural development: A systematic review. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1, 277–312. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084950.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLeigh, J. D., McDonell, J. R., & Lavenda, O. (2018). Neighborhood poverty and child abuse and neglect: The mediating role of social cohesion. Children and Youth Services Review, 93, 154–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.07.018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185–204.10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.185CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meiklejohn, J., Phillips, C., Freedman, M. L., et al. (2012). Integrating mindfulness training into K-12 education: Fostering the resilience of teachers and students. Mindfulness, 3(4), 291–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0094-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendes, W. B. (2009). Assessing the autonomic nervous system. In Harmon-Jones, E. & Beer, J. S. (Eds.), Methods in Social Neuroscience (pp. 118–147). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Menezes, M., Soland, J., & Mazurek, M. O. (2024). Association between neighborhood support and family resilience in households with autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(5), 1765–1773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-05951-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research sevidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, J. S., & Novak, M. A. (2012). Minireview: Hair cortisol: A novel biomarker of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical activity. Endocrinology, 153(9), 4120–4127. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2012-1226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milam, A. J., Furr-Holden, C. D. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Perceived school and neighborhood safety, neighborhood violence and academic achievement in urban school children. The Urban Review, 42(5), 458–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-010-0165-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. E., & Chen, E. (2013). The biological residue of childhood poverty. Child Development Perspectives, 7(2), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Parker, K. J. (2011). Psychological stress in childhood and susceptibility to the chronic diseases of aging: Moving toward a model of behavioral and biological mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(6), 959–997. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 25–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mistry, R. S., Vandewater, E. A., Huston, A. C., & McLoyd, V. C. (2002). Economic well-being and children’s social adjustment: The role of family process in an ethnically diverse low-income sample. Child Development, 73(3), 935–951. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miu, A. C., Szentágotai-Tătar, A., Balázsi, R., et al. (2022). Emotion regulation as mediator between childhood adversity and psychopathology: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 93, 102141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan Hughey, S., Kaczynski, A. T., Child, S., et al. (2017). Green and lean: Is neighborhood park and playground availability associated with youth obesity? Variations by gender, socioeconomic status, and race/ethnicity. Preventive Medicine, 95, S101–S108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.11.024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, A. S., Criss, M. M., Silk, J. S., & Houltberg, B. J. (2017). The impact of parenting on emotion regulation during childhood and adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 11(4), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulligan, D. J., Palopoli, A. C., van den Heuvel, M. I., Thomason, M. E., & Trentacosta, C. J. (2022). Frontal alpha asymmetry in response to stressor moderates the relation between parenting hassles and child externalizing problems. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.917300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muniz, C. N., Fox, B., Miley, L. N., et al. (2019). The effects of adverse childhood experiences on internalizing versus externalizing outcomes. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(4), 568–589. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854819826213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nachmias, M., Gunnar, M., Mangelsdorf, S., Parritz, R. H., & Buss, K. (1996). Behavioral inhibition and stress reactivity: The moderating role of attachment security. Child Development, 67(2), 508–522.10.2307/1131829CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (2024a). What is a traumatic event? Retrieved August 15, 2024, www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/about-child-trauma.Google Scholar
National Child Traumatic Stress Network (2024b). Interventions. Retrieved May 31, 2025, www.nctsn.org/treatments-and-practices/trauma-treatments/interventions.Google Scholar
Negriff, S., Gordis, E. B., Susman, E. J., et al. (2020). The young adolescent project: A longitudinal study of the effects of maltreatment on adolescent development. Development and Psychopathology, 32, 1440–1459. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419001391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nievar, M. A., Moske, A. K., Johnson, D. J., & Chen, Q. (2014). Parenting practices in preschool leading to later cognitive competence: A family stress model. Early Education and Development, 25(3), 318–337. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2013.788426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nijhof, S. L., Vinkers, C. H., van Geelen, S. M., et al. (2018). Healthy play, better coping: The importance of play for the development of children in health and disease. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 95, 421–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.09.024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Novick, A. M., Levandowski, M. L., Laumann, L. E., et al. (2018). The effects of early life stress on reward processing. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 101, 80–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.02.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Callaghan, P., McMullen, J., Shannon, C., Rafferty, H., & Black, A. (2013). A randomized controlled trial of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for sexually exploited, war-affected congolese girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(4), 359–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.01.013.Google ScholarPubMed
Oberle, E., & Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2016). Stress contagion in the classroom? The link between classroom teacher burnout and morning cortisol in elementary school students. Social Science & Medicine, 159, 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.031.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J., & Armstrong-Carter, E. (2020). Addressing educational inequalities and promoting learning through studies of stress physiology in elementary school students. Development and Psychopathology, 32(5), 1899–1913. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420001443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olds, D. L. (2006). The nurse–family partnership: An evidence-based preventive intervention. Infant Mental Health Journal, 27(1), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20077.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olds, D. L., Kitzman, H., Anson, E., et al. (2019). Prenatal and infancy nurse home visiting effects on mothers: 18-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 144(6), e20183889. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olweus, D., & Limber, S. P. (2010). Bullying in school: Evaluation and dissemination of the olweus bullying prevention program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(1), 124–134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01015.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Overstreet, S., & Mathews, T. (2011). Challenges associated with exposure to chronic trauma: Using a public health framework to foster resilient outcomes among youth. Psychology in the Schools, 48(7), 738–754. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oxford, M. L., Hash, J. B., Lohr, M. J., et al. (2021). Randomized trial of promoting first relationships for new mothers who received community mental health services in pregnancy. Developmental Psychology, 57(8), 1228–1241. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pandey, A., Hale, D., Das, S., Goddings, A.-L., Blakemore, S.-J., & Viner, R. M. (2018). Effectiveness of universal self-regulation–based interventions in children and adolescents. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(6), 566–575. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.0232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pang, D., Frydenberg, E., Liang, R., Deans, J., & Su, L. (2018). Improving coping skills and promoting social and emotional competence in pre-schoolers: A pilotSstudy on COPE-R program. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research, 7(2), Article 2.Google Scholar
Parent, S., Lupien, S., Herba, C. M., Dupéré, V., Gunnar, M. R., & Séguin, J. R. (2019). Children’s cortisol response to the transition from preschool to formal schooling: A review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 99, 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.09.013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parenteau, A. M., Alen, N. V., Deer, L. K., et al. (2020). Parenting matters: Parents can reduce or amplify children’s anxiety and cortisol responses to acute stress. Development and Psychopathology, 32(5), 1799–1809. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420001285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parenteau, A. M., Boyer, C. J., Campos, L. J., et al. (2023). A review of mental health disparities during COVID-19: Evidence, mechanisms, and policy recommendations for promoting societal resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 35(4), 1821–1842. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579422000499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive Family Process. Castalia. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130282268968068608.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (2002). The early development of coercive family process. In Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. (Eds.), Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents: A Developmental Analysis and Model for Intervention (pp. 25–44). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10468-002.Google Scholar
Pauker, K., Williams, A., & Steele, J. R. (2016). Children’s racial categorization in context. Child Development Perspectives, 10(1), 33–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payton, J., Weissberg, R. P., Durlak, J. A., et al.(2008). The positive impact of social and emotional learning for kindergarten to eighth-grade students: Findings from three scientific reviews. Technical report. In Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (NJ1). Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED505370Google Scholar
Pedersen, S., Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., & Borge, A. I. H. (2007). The timing of middle‐childhood peer rejection and friendship: Linking early behavior to early‐adolescent adjustment. Child Development, 78(4), 1037–1051. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01051.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perdue, N. H., Manzeske, D. P., & Estell, D. B. (2009). Early predictors of school engagement: Exploring the role of peer relationships. Psychology in the Schools, 46(10), 1084–1097. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20446.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez-del-Pulgar, C., Anguelovski, I., Cole, H. V. S., et al. (2021). The relationship between residential proximity to outdoor play spaces and children’s mental and behavioral health: The importance of neighborhood socio-economic characteristics. Environmental Research, 200, 111326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peters, E., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., Cillessen, A. H. N., & de Weerth, C. (2011). Peer rejection and HPA activity in middle childhood: Friendship makes a difference. Child Development, 82(6), 1906–1920. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01647.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peverill, M., Rosen, M. L., Lurie, L. A., et al. (2023). Childhood trauma and brain structure in children and adolescents. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 59, 101180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2022.101180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing Relationships between Children and Teachers. American Psychological Association. http://archive.org/details/enhancingrelatio0000pian.10.1037/10314-000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priest, N., Doery, K., Lim, C. K., et al. (2024). Racism and health and wellbeing among children and youth–An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 361, 117324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Priest, N., Paradies, Y., Trenerry, B., et al. (2013). A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people. Social Science & Medicine, 95, 115–127.10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.11.031CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The U.S. triple P system population trial. Prevention Science, 10(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0123-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quas, J. A., Rush, E. B., Yim, I. S., & Nikolayev, M. (2013). Effects of stress on memory in children and adolescents: Testing causal connections. Memory, 22(6), 616–632. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2013.809766.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quesada, A. A., Wiemers, U. S., Schoofs, D., & Wolf, O. T. (2012). Psychosocial stress exposure impairs memory retrieval in children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(1), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.05.013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quigley, K. S., Gianaros, P. J., Norman, G. J., et al. (2024). Publication guidelines for human heart rate and heart rate variability studies in psychophysiology-Part 1: Physiological underpinnings and foundations of measurement. Psychophysiology, 61(9), e14604. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quigley, K. M., & Moore, G. A. (2018). Development of cardiac autonomic balance in infancy and early childhood: A possible pathway to mental and physical health outcomes. Developmental Review, 49, 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.06.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rab, S. L., & Admon, R. (2021). Parsing inter- and intra-individual variability in key nervous system mechanisms of stress responsivity and across functional domains. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 120, 550–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raver, C. C. (2002). Emotions matter: Making the case for the role of young children’s emotional development for early school readiness. Social Policy Report, 16(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2379-3988.2002.tb00041.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 330–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ribeiro, A. I., Tavares, C., Guttentag, A., & Barros, H. (2019). Association between neighbourhood green space and biological markers in school-aged children. Findings from the Generation XXI birth cohort. Environment International, 132, 105070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riggs, J. L., Rosenblum, K. L., Muzik, M., et al. (2022). Infant mental health home visiting mitigates impact of maternal adverse childhood experiences on toddler language competence: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 43(4), e227. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000001020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., & Pianta, R. C. (2000). An ecological perspective on the transition to kindergarten: A theoretical framework to guide empirical research. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21(5), 491–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-3973(00)00051-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenblum, K., Lawler, J., Alfafara, E., et al. (2018). Improving maternal representations in high-risk mothers: A randomized, controlled trial of the mom power parenting intervention. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 49(3), 372–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-017-0757-5.Google ScholarPubMed
Roubinov, D. S., Hagan, M. J., Boyce, W. T., Adler, N. E., & Bush, N. R. (2018). Family socioeconomic status, cortisol, and physical health in early childhood: The role of advantageous neighborhood characteristics. Psychosomatic Medicine, 80(5), 492. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000585.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, K. H., Althoff, R. R., Walkup, J. T., & Hudziak, J. J. (2013). Cross-informant agreement on child and adolescent withdrawn behavior: A latent class approach. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 44(3), 361–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-012-0330-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, K. H., & Chronis‐Tuscano, A. (2021). Perspectives on social withdrawal in childhood: Past, present, and prospects. Child Development Perspectives, 15(3), 160–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, K. H., & Coplan, R. J. (2004). Paying attention to and not neglecting social withdrawal and social isolation. Merrill-Palmer Q. 50(506–34).10.1353/mpq.2004.0036CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, K. H., Coplan, R. J., & Bowker, J. C. (2009). Social withdrawal in childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 141–171. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, K. H., Coplan, R., Chen, X., Bowker, J., & McDonald, K. L. (2011). Peer relationships in childhood. In Bornstein, M. H. & Lamb, M. E. (Eds.), Developmental Science: An Advanced Textbook (6th ed., pp. 519–570). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Development, 70(3), 660–677. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00048.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russ, S. J., Herbert, J., Cooper, P., et al. (2012). Cortisol levels in response to starting school in children at increased risk for social phobia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(4), 462–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.07.014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sahle, B. W., Reavley, N. J., Li, W., et al. (2022). The association between adverse childhood experiences and common mental disorders and suicidality: An umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(10), 1489–1499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01745-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, M. R., Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Day, J. J. (2014). The triple P-positive parenting program: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a multi-level system of parenting support. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(4), 337–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.04.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheeringa, M. S., Weems, C. F., Cohen, J. A., Amaya-Jackson, L., & Guthrie, D. (2011). Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in three-through six year-old children: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(8), 853–860. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02354.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., et al. (2015). Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 52–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwabe, L., Joëls, M., Roozendaal, B., Wolf, O. T., & Oitzl, M. S. (2012). Stress effects on memory: an update and integration. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 36(7), 1740–1749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.07.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, A. E., Laurito, A., Lacoe, J., Sharkey, P., & Ellen, I. G. (2022). The academic effects of chronic exposure to neighbourhood violence. Urban Studies, 59(14), 3005–3021. https://doi.org/10.1177/00420980211052149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sears, M. S., Repetti, R. L., Reynolds, B. M., Robles, T. F., & Krull, J. L. (2016). Spillover in the home: The effects of family conflict on parents’ behavior. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(1), 127–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sege, R. D., Amaya-Jackson, L., American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect, et al. (2017). Clinical considerations related to the behavioral manifestations of child maltreatment. Pediatrics, 139(4), e20170100. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-0100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Supplee, L., Gardner, F., & Arnds, K. (2006). Randomized trial of a family-centered approach to the prevention of early conduct problems: 2-year effects of the family check-up in early childhood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.1.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheridan, M. A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., McLaughlin, K. A., & Nelson III, C. A. (2012). Variation in neural development as a result of exposure to institutionalization early in childhood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(32), 12927–12932.10.1073/pnas.1200041109CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheridan, M. A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2014). Dimensions of early experience and neural development: Deprivation and threat. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(11), 580–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.09.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheridan, M. A., Peverill, M., Finn, A. S., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2017). Dimensions of childhood adversity have distinct associations with neural systems underlying executive functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 29(5), 1777–1794. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shetgiri, R. (2013). Bullying and victimization among children. Advances in Pediatrics, 60(1), 33–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2013.04.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shonkoff, J. P., & Bales, S. N. (2011). Science does not speak for itself: Translating child development research for the public and its policymakers: Translating research for policymakers. Child Development, 82(1), 17–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01538.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P., & Fisher, P. A. (2013). Rethinking evidence-based practice and two-generation programs to create the future of early childhood policy. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt2), 1635–1653. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000813.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., & The Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care, and Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232–e246. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2663.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (2000). Promoting healthy development through intervention. In Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.), From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development (pp. 337–380). National Academies Press (US). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225561/.Google Scholar
Shonkoff, J. P., Slopen, N., & Williams, D. R. (2021). Early Childhood adversity, toxic stress, and the impacts of racism on the foundations of health. Annual Review of Public Health, 42(1), 115–134. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-101940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegel, D. J. (2001). Toward an interpersonal neurobiology of the developing mind: Attachment relationships, “mindsight,” and neural integration. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(1–2), 67–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0355(200101/04)22:1<67::AID-IMHJ3>3.0.CO;2-G.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, G. K., & Kenney, M. K. (2013). Rising prevalence and neighborhood, social, and behavioral determinants of sleep problems in US children and adolescents, 2003–2012. Sleep Disorders, 2013, 394320. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/394320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skowron, E. A., Loken, E., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M., et al. (2011). Mapping cardiac physiology and parenting processes in maltreating mother–child dyads. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(5), 663–674. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smider, N. A., Essex, M. J., Kalin, N. H., et al. (2002). Salivary cortisol as a predictor of socioemotional adjustment during kindergarten: A prospective study. Child Development, 73(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, J. D., Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D. S., et al. (2014). Coercive family process and early-onset conduct problems from age 2 to school entry. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4 0 1), 917–932. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414000169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, K. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2020). Rethinking concepts and categories for understanding the neurodevelopmental effects of childhood adversity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(1), 67–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620920725.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, K. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2021). Social relationships and children’s perceptions of adversity. Child Development Perspectives, 15(4), 228–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sotardi, V. A. (2016). Understanding student stress and coping in elementary school: A mixed-method, longitudinal study. Psychology in the Schools, 53(7), 705–721. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21938.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 817–833. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579497001454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., Kataoka, S. H., et al. (2003). A mental health intervention for schoolchildren exposed to violence a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 290(5), 603–611. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.5.603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stempel, H., Cox-Martin, M., Bronsert, M., Dickinson, L. M., & Allison, M. A. (2017). Chronic school absenteeism and the role of adverse childhood experiences. Academic Pediatrics, 17(8), 837–843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2017.09.013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sterling, P., & Eyer, J. (1988). Allostasis: A new paradigm to explain arousal pathology. In Fisher, S. & Reason, J. (Eds.), Handbook of Life Stress, Cognition and Health (pp. 629–649). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Sternthal, M. J., Jun, H.-J., Earls, F., & Wright, R. J. (2010). Community violence and urban childhood asthma: A multilevel analysis. European Respiratory Journal, 36(6), 1400–1409. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00003010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Jacques, D. T., Davies, P. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2022). Maternal power assertive discipline and children’s adjustment in high-risk families: A social domain theory approach. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 31(9), 2319–2330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02127-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suchman, N. E., DeCoste, C., Castiglioni, N., et al. (2010). The mothers and toddlers program, an attachment-based parenting intervention for substance using women: Post-treatment results from a randomized clinical pilot. Attachment & Human Development, 12(5), 483–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2010.501983.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sumner, J. A., Colich, N. L., Uddin, M., Armstrong, D., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2019). Early experiences of threat, but not deprivation, are associated with accelerated biological aging in children and adolescents. Biological Psychiatry, 85(3), 268–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.09.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szalacha, L. A., Erkut, S., Coll, C. G., et al. (2003). Discrimination and Puerto Rican children’s and adolescents’ mental health. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9(2), 141–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.9.2.141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szymanski, K., Sapanski, L., & Conway, F. (2011). Trauma and ADHD – association or diagnostic confusion? A clinical perspective. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 10(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/15289168.2011.575704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tabachnick, A. R., Raby, K. L., Goldstein, A., Zajac, L., & Dozier, M. (2019). Effects of an attachment-based intervention in infancy on children’s autonomic regulation during middle childhood. Biological Psychology, 143, 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.01.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taborsky, B., Kuijper, B., Fawcett, T. W., et al. (2022). An evolutionary perspective on stress responses, damage and repair. Hormones and Behavior, 142, 105180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takizawa, R., Maughan, B., & Arseneault, L. (2014). Adult health outcomes of childhood bullying victimization: Evidence from a five-decade longitudinal British birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(7), 777–784. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13101401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tatum, B. D. (1997). Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? And Other Conversations about Race. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Thakur, N., Hessler, D., Koita, K., et al. (2020). Pediatrics adverse childhood experiences and related life events screener (PEARLS) and health in a safety-net practice. Child Abuse & Neglect, 108, 104685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theall, K. P., Shirtcliff, E. A., Dismukes, A. R., Wallace, M., & Drury, S. S. (2017). Association between neighborhood violence and biological stress in children. JAMA Pediatrics, 171(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.2321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, M. S., Crosby, S., & Vanderhaar, J. (2019). Trauma-informed practices in schools across two decades: An interdisciplinary review of research. Review of Research in Education, 43(1), 422–452. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (2014). Stress and child development. The Future of Children, 24(1), 41–59.10.1353/foc.2014.0004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R. A., & Calkins, S. D. (1996). The double-edged sword: Emotional regulation for children at risk. Development and Psychopathology, 8(1), 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400007021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomsen, M. R., Nayga, R. M., Alviola, P. A., & Rouse, H. L. (2016). The effect of food deserts on the body mass index of elementary school children. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 98(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aav039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorvaldsen, S., Hansen, K. T., & Forsberg, J. T. (2024). Children and adolescents weathering the storm: Resilience in the presence of bullying victimization, harassment, and pandemic lockdown in northern Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, sjop.13012. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.13012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tillmann, S., Tobin, D., Avison, W., & Gilliland, J. (2018). Mental health benefits of interactions with nature in children and teenagers: A systematic review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 72(10), 958–966. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2018-210436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tout, K., de Haan, M., Campbell, E. K., & Gunnar, M. R. (1998). Social behavior correlates of cortisol activity in child care: Gender differences and time-of-day effects. Child Development, 69(5), 1247–1262. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06209.x.Google ScholarPubMed
Troop‐Gordon, W., Sugimura, N., & Rudolph, K. D. (2017). Responses to interpersonal stress: Normative changes across childhood and the impact of peer victimization. Child Development, 88(2), 640–657. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner-Cobb, J. M., Rixon, L., & Jessop, D. S. (2008). A prospective study of diurnal cortisol responses to the social experience of school transition in four-year-old children: Anticipation, exposure, and adaptation. Developmental Psychobiology, 50(4), 377–389. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyrrell, M. (2005). School phobia. The Journal of School Nursing, 21(3), 147–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/10598405050210030401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ugarte, E., & Hastings, P. D. (2024). Assessing unpredictability in caregiver–child relationships: Insights from theoretical and empirical perspectives. Development and Psychopathology, 36(3), 1070–1089. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579423000305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ungar, M., & Theron, L. (2020). Resilience and mental health: How multisystemic processes contribute to positive outcomes. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(5), 441–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30434-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaillancourt, T., Brittain, H., Krygsman, A., et al. (2021). School bullying before and during COVID‐19: Results from a population‐based randomized design. Aggressive Behavior, 47(5), 557–569. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vanaelst, B., De Vriendt, T., Huybrechts, I., Rinaldi, S., & De Henauw, S. (2012). Epidemiological approaches to measure childhood stress. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 26(3), 280–297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01258.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vélez, C. E., Wolchik, S. A., Tein, J.-Y., & Sandler, I. (2011). Protecting children from the consequences of divorce: A longitudinal study of the effects of parenting on children’s coping processes. Child Development, 82(1), 244–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01553.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vermeer, H. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2006). Children’s elevated cortisol levels at daycare: A review and meta-analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(3), 390–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.07.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walton, L. M. (2018). The effects of “bias based bullying” (BBB) on health, education, and cognitive–social–emotional outcomes in children with minority backgrounds: Proposed comprehensive public health intervention solutions. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 20(2), 492–496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-017-0547-y.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, X., & Maguire-Jack, K. (2018). Family and environmental influences on child behavioral health: The role of neighborhood disorder and adverse childhood experiences. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 39(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, S. F., West, T. V., & Mendes, W. B. (2014). Stress contagion: Physiological covariation between mothers and infants. Psychological Science, 25(4), 934–942. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613518352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weatherston, D. J., Ribaudo, J., & Research, T. M. C. for I. M. H. (2020). The Michigan infant mental health home visiting model. Infant Mental Health Journal, 41(2), 166–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weisz, J. R., & Kazdin, A. E. (2017). Evidence-Based Psychotherapies for Children and Adolescents: Third Edition. Guildford.Google Scholar
Wellman, H. M., & Woolley, J. D. (1990). From simple desires to ordinary beliefs: The early development of everyday psychology. Cognition, 35(3), 245–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(90)90024-E.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wentzel, K., Russell, S., & Baker, S. (2009). Peer relationships and positive adjustment at school. In Gilman, R., Huebner, E. S., & Furlong, M. J. (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools (2nd ed.) (pp. 229–243). Routledge.Google Scholar
Whitaker, R. C., Dearth-Wesley, T., & Gooze, R. A. (2015). Workplace stress and the quality of teacher–children relationships in Head Start. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 30, 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.08.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, D. R., Lawrence, J. A., Davis, B. A., & Vu, C. (2019). Understanding how discrimination can affect health. Health Services Research, 54(S2), 1374–1388. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolke, D., & Lereya, S. T. (2015). Long-term effects of bullying. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 100(9), 879–885. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2014-306667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, M. (2015). Voices of children, parents and teachers: How children cope with stress during school transition. Early Child Development and Care, 185(4), 658–678. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2014.948872.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization. (2019/2021). International classification of diseases, eleventh revision (ICD-11). https://icd.who.int/browse11. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 3.0 IGO licence (CC BY-ND 3.0 IGO).Google Scholar
Xu, Y., Harms, M. B., Green, C. S., Wilson, R. C., & Pollak, S. D. (2023). Childhood unpredictability and the development of exploration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(49), e2303869120. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2303869120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ye, M., Hessler, D., Ford, D., et al. (2023). Pediatric ACEs and related life event screener (PEARLS) latent domains and child health in a safety-net primary care practice. BMC Pediatrics, 23(1), 367. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-023-04163-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahn–Waxler, C., Klimes–Dougan, B., & Slattery, M. J. (2000). Internalizing problems of childhood and adolescence: Prospects, pitfalls, and progress in understanding the development of anxiety and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 12(3), 443–466. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400003102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhu, Y. (2023). “Big brothers and sisters have my back”: Benefits and risks of befriending older peers as a strategy to deal with school bullying. Child Abuse Review, 32(3), e2827. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2827.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zietz, S., Lansford, J. E., Liu, Q., et al. (2022). A longitudinal examination of the family stress model of economic hardship in seven countries. Children and Youth Services Review, 143, 106661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106661.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zinsser, K. M., Bailey, C. S., Curby, T. W., Denham, S. A., & Bassett, H. H. (2013). Exploring the predictable classroom: Preschool teacher stress, emotional supportiveness, and students’ social-emotional behavior in private and Head Start classrooms. HS Dialog, 16(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.55370/hsdialog.v16i2.95.Google Scholar
Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.1 AA
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
The HTML of this element
complies with version 2.1 of the
Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
(WCAG), covering newer accessibility requirements and improved
user experiences and achieves the intermediate
(AA)
level of WCAG compliance, covering a wider range of accessibility requirements.
Content Navigation
Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Reading Order & Textual Equivalents
Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
Visual Accessibility
Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
Structural and Technical Features
ARIA roles provided
You gain clarity from ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) roles and attributes, as they help assistive technologies interpret how each part of the content functions.
You gain clarity from ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) roles and attributes, as they help assistive technologies interpret how each part of the content functions.
- 1
- Cited by