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Clan and Superclan: Loyalty, Identity and Community in Law and Practice

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 February 2017

Thomas M. Franck
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Extract

There are many countries in our blood, aren’t there, but only one person. Would the world be in the mess it is if we were loyal to love and not to countries?

—Graham Greene, Our Man in Havana

In Bosnia, the vaunted ideal—a multivariegated state of Muslims, Orthodox Serbs and Catholic Croats living in a tolerant civil society—has virtually been extinguished by a torrent of blood and tears. In Belgium, itself a less than two-hundred-year-old product of Catholic rebellion against Orange-Protestant Holland, the Flemish Catholics of Flanders have all but parted ways with the French Catholics of Walloonia, leaving an ethnically stressed Brussels paradoxically ensconced as capital of a “United Europe.” What is going on here, or in Somalia, Slovakia, Quebec and Kazakhstan?

Type
Research Article
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 90 , Issue 3 , July 1996 , pp. 359 - 383
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 1996

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References

* Of the Board of Editors. This essay is a draft of part of a forthcoming book.

The author wishes to express warm appreciation to his colleagues Philip Allott and David Richards. In the course of a stimulating seminar at NYU, they broadened the perspective of this essay and enriched its historical matrix. The comments of Professor Graham Hughes were also most helpful. The generous support of the Filomen D’Agostino and Max E. Greenberg Research Fund of New York University School of Law is gratefully acknowledged.

1 An excellent example of this dialogue between liberal nationalists and transnational regime theorists is found in Foreign Affairs. Michael Lind, In Defense of Liberal Nationalism, Foreign Aff., May/June 1994, at 87; and Gidon Gotdieb, Nations Without States, id. at 100.

2 For a discussion of “ethnie,” see Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (1986). See also text at note 7 infra.

3 G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History 134 (H. B. Nisbet trans., 1975).

4 Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism 49 (1983).

5 Id.

6 E.J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780, at 3 (2d ed. 1990).

7 See John A. Armstrong, Nations Before Nationalism 4, 284 (1982).

8 Id. at 8–9.

9 Gellner, supra note 4, at 48.

10 See Nathaniel Berman, Economic Consequences, Nationalist Passions: Keynes, Crisis, Culture and Policy, 10 Am. U.J. Intl L. & Pol’y 619 (1995).

11 John Maynard Keynes, A Revision of the Treaty, reprinted in 3 The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes 1, 8 (D. Moggridge ed., 1972).

12 Western Sahara, 1975 ICJ Rep. 12, 32–33, 67–68, paras. 57, 161 (Advisory Opinion of Oct. 16).

13 See, e.g., Nathaniel Berman, “But the Alternative Is Despair”: European Nationalism and the Modernist Renewal of International Law, 106 Harv. L. Rev. 1792 (1993); Nathaniel Berman, Modernism, Nationalism, and the Rhetoric of Reconstruction, 4 Yale J.L. & Human. 351 (1992); Nathaniel Berman, A Perilous Ambivalence: Nationalist Desire, Legal Autonomy, and the Limits of the Interwar Framework, 33 Harv. Int’l L.J. 353 (1992).

14 G. W. F. Hegel, Philosophy of Right 213 (T. M. Knox trans., 1942) (1821).

15 Suzanne Citron, A propos de Clovis, Le Monde, Feb. 28, 1996, at 8.

16 John Locke, Second Treatise, ch. IX, in Two Treatises of Government (Peter Laslett ed., 2d ed. 1960) (1690).

17 Id., para. 124.

18 Aristotle, Politics, Books III & IV, bk. III, pt. 6 (Richard Robinson trans., Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1995).

19 Hegel, supra note 14, at 211–12.

21 John A. Hall, Nationalism: Classified and Explained, Daedalus, Summer 1993, at 1, 4.

21 Clarence K. Streit, Union Now (1939).

22 See World Government Movements, in 23 Encyclopaedia Britannica 679 (1973 ed.).

23 Linda Colley, Britons 5 (1992).

24 The British imperial and mercantilist expansion of the 18th and 19th centuries promoted the sense of a nation. Professor Colley has noted that this evidenced “one of the best and most compelling reasons for loyalty. Quite simply, it paid.” Id. at 56.

25 Philip Allott, The International Court and the Voice of Justice, in Fifty Years of the International Court Of Justice 17, 19–20 (Vaughan Lowe & Malgosia Fitzmaurice eds., 1995).

26 Hobsbawm, supra note 6, at 6.

27 Conflict in the Balkans; Details of Accord: Division Within Unity, N.Y. Times, Sept. 9, 1995, at 4.

28 See Hugh Seton-Watson, Nations and States 22–35 (1977).

29 Colley, supra note 23, at 5–9.

30 The forging, in the 17th and 18th centuries, of a British nation depended heavily on a ferocious Protestant fear of, and antipathy to, the Catholic Europe dominated by the archenemy: France. Id. at 17–54.

31 See Seton-Watson, supra note 28, at 22, 31–35 (Scotland), 61–66 (Holland). Concerning Holland, see also Armstrong, supra note 7, at 256–57.

32 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities 163 (rev. ed. 1991).

33 Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and its Revival (1994).

34 Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society 3 (1990).

35 Id. at 411.

36 Id. at 410.

37 Id. at 411, table 12–9.

38 Gellner, supra note 4, at 13. As to territorial localism and other variants on federalism, see Oscar Schachter, Micronationalism and Secession, in Recht Zwischen Umbruch und Bewahrung: Völkerrecht, Europarecht, Staatsrecht. Festschrtft Für Rudolf Bernhardt 179 (1995).

39 Hobsbawm, supra note 6, at 11.

40 Colley, supra note 23, at 6.

41 Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey 2 (1961).

42 Id. at 15.

43 See Jonn Keane, Tom Paine, A Political Life 267–454 (1995).

44 Hobsbawm, supra note 6, at 60.

45 E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: 1789–1848, at 166 (1962).

46 Quoted in SETON-WATSON, supra note 28, at 107.

47 Immanuel Kant, On Perpetual Peace, in Kant’s Political Writings 105 (Hans Reiss ed., 1970) (1795).

48 Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study of Its Origins and Background 331 (1944).

49 For example, the governing Turkish Republic People’s Party Programme of 1935 proclaimed: “The Fatherland is the sacred country within our present political boundaries where the Turkish nation lives with its ancient and illustrious history, and with its past glories still living in the depths of its soil.” Lewis, supra note 41, at 317.

50 Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society–A Study of Order in World Politics 39 (1977).

51 In the Bernadotte case, the International Court of Justice recognized that the United Nations must have legal standing to pursue claims on behalf of its Secretariat’s personnel, so that individual civil servants will not need to look to their states of citizenship for protection of their interests. Reparation for injuries suffered in the service of the United Nations, 1949 ICJ Rep. 174 (Advisory Opinion of Apr. 11).

52 This transformation is demonstrated statistically and analyzed persuasively in Inglehart, supra note 34.

53 See Kohn, supra note 48, at 395–402.

54 Id. at 401 n.136 (citing Kant’s Handschriftlicher Nachlass, NO. 1099, at 489).

55 Id. at 405 (citing 2 J. Minor, Schiller: Sein Leben und seine Werke 568 (Berlin, Weidmann 1890); and 2 Schiller’s Complete Works 340 (C.J. Hempel ed., Philadelphia, Kohler 1870)).

56 BULL, supra note 50, at 275.

57 Id. at 255.

58 “Besides the Harbi or infidel beyond the frontier, there was also the Zimoui … the protected non-Muslim subject of the Muslim state, whose position was determined by the dhimma, or pact, between his community, called millet, and the dominant community of Islam.” Lewis, supra note 41, at 322–23.

59 For example, Lewis tells us that “[a]mong the different peoples who embraced Islam none went farther in sinking their separate identity in the Islamic community than the Turks.” Id. at 323.

60 But see H. Ansgar Kelly, Dual Nationality, the Myth of Election, and a Kinder, Gentler State Department, 23 U. Miami Inter-Am. L. Rev. 421 (1991–92); T. Alexander Aleinikoff, Theories of Loss of Citizenship, 84 Mich. L. Rev. 1471 (1986); Marian Nash (Leich), Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law, 87 AJIL 598 (1993).

61 Act of March 2, 1907, ch. 2534, §2, 34 Stat. 1228 (1907) (repealed 1940).

62 110 F.Supp. 706 (D.C. Cir. 1953).

63 Id. at 709.

64 Minutes of the First Committee, 2 League of Nations, Acts of the Conference on the Codification of International Law, League of Nations Doc. C.351(a).M.145(a).1930.V, Ann. II, at 295 (1930), reprinted in 3 League of Nations Conference for the Codification of International Law 1175 (Shabtai Rosenne ed., 1975). The United States did not sign the Convention, which gave states even broader latitude to denationalize those of their citizens claiming dual nationality. Convention on the Conflict of Nationality Laws, Apr. 12, 1930, Art. 6, 179 LNTS 91, 101.

65 Nationality Act of 1940, ch. 876, 54 Stat. 1137, 1168, sec. 401.

66 Kawakita v. United States, 343 U.S. 717 (1952).

67 Id. at 723. President Eisenhower commuted the sentence to life imprisonment and President Kennedy commuted that sentence to deportation to Japan. Kelly, supra note 60, at 431.

68 356 U.S. 44 (1958).

69 387 U.S. 253 (1967).

70 Vance v. Terrazas, 444 U.S. 252 (1980).

71 Act of Nov. 14, 1986, §18, 100 Stat. 3655, 3658 (codified as amended in 8 U.S.C. §1481 (1988)).

72 8 U.S.C. §1481 (a).

73 Id.

74 In re J.J.S., Bd. App. Rev. (Dec. 17, 1987); and In re E.J.P., Bd. App. Rev. (Oct. 12, 1987), cited in 4 Charles Gordon & E. Gittel Gordon, Immigration and Naturalization Law at n.55e.1 (Supp. 1989, 1990, 1991). See also In re C.M.S., Dec. No. 90–12, Bd. App. Rev. (July 5, 1990), in 67 Interpreter Releases 789, 799 (July 23, 1990).

75 Telegram issued by James Baker, Secretary of State, to all diplomatic and consular posts, U.S. Dep’t of State, unclas. No. 121,931, §5 (Apr. 16, 1990), cited in Kelly, supra note 60, at 444 n.127.

76 U.S. Dep’t State. Dual Nationality (rev. ed. 1992), reprinted in 87 AJIL 602, 603 (1993). See also U.S. Dep’t State, Advice About Possible Loss Of U.S. Citizenship and Dual Nationality (rev. ed. 1992), reprinted in 87 AJIL at 599 [hereinafter Loss of Citizenship]. The quoted provisions are unchanged from those in the 1990 editions of both pamphlets, reprinted in Kelly, supra note 60, at 457 and 460.

77 Loss of Citizenship, supra note 76, 87 AJIL at 600.

78 Martin Chazonov, Job Springs from Ethnic Roots, L.A. Times, Nov. 3, 1991, at 8, quoted in Kelly, supra note 60, at 447.

79 N.Y. Times, June 5, 1995, at A5.

80 N.Y. Times, Dec. 4, 1995, at A6.

81 N.Y. Times, Nov. 26, 1995, §6 (Magazine), at 49.

82 R.S.C., ch. C–19, §15(1) (1970).

88 Citizenship Act, 1976, ch. 108, sec. 1, R.S.C., ch. C–29 (1985).

84 Id., §9(1). See also Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Dual Citizenship (1991).

85 Dual Citizenship, supra note 84, at 2.

86 Sam Dillon, Mexico Woos U.S. Mexicans, Proposing Dual Nationality, N.Y. Times, Dec. 10, 1995, §1, at 16.

87 Citizenship Act, No. 61, 1977, 31 R.S.N.Z. 45 (1993).

88 Kelly, supra note 60, at 451.

89 Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs v. Gugerli, 36 F.C.R. 68 (1992) (admin. app.) (regarding Australian Citizenship Act, 1948, §17(1)).

90 Id. at 72–73.

91 British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, 1943, 6 & 7 Geo. VI, ch. 14 (Eng.).

92 See 2 Charles Cheney Hyde, International Law 1153 (2d rev. ed. 1947).

93 See Rui Manuel Maura Ramos, Nationalité, plurinationalité et supranationalité en droit portugais 22 (1995) (unpublished manuscript, on file with author).

94 Code Civil Art. 21 (Code civil de la nationalité).

95 The prohibition was in Law of Oct. 19, 1945, Code civil de la nationalité, titre IV: De la perte et de la déchéance de la nationalité française, ch. 1, Art. 87. The amendment to this prohibition, Law No. 73–42 of Jan. 9, 1973, is now in Code civil de la nationalité, titre IV, ch. I: De la perte de la nationalité française, Art. 87.

96 Andrew Stewart & Siegfried Kurz, Dual Nationality. Êtes-vous français?, Army Law., Mar. 1991, at 3, 4. See also Simone Tan, Dual Nationality in France and the United States, 15 Hastings Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. 447 (1992).

97 Grundgesetz (Basic Law) Art. 116(1) (FRG); Reichs- und Staatsangehörigkeitsgesetz [RuStaG] §17 (1913); RuStaG §25, para. 2 (1977). See also Hyde, supra note 92, at 1154.

98 Interview with German Foreign Ministry legal officer (Mar. 6, 1996).

99 RuStaG §3 (1913). This is in contrast to French law, which does not require renunciation of prior nationality as a requirement for naturalization in France. See William Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany 144–47, 173–74 (1992).

100 Staatsbürgerschaftsgesetz 1965, sec. III, Verlust der Staatsbürgerschaft, §28(1) and (2), 1985 Bundesgesetzblatt 2390 (Aus.).

101 Nationality and Citizenship Act, No. 26, §24 (1956).

102 Id. §26(1).

103 Representation of the People Act, 1983, §1(1)(b)(ii); and British Nationality Act, 1981, §52(6), sched. 7. See 4(2) Halsburys Laws of England 76, para. 65 (4th ed. reissued 1992).

104 Ninth Amendment of the Constitution Act, 1984. The Electoral (Amendment) Act, 1985, provided for the extension of this right reciprocally to citizens of other European Community countries resident in Ireland.

105 Maura Ramos, supra note 93.

106 Brubaker, supra note 99, at 145 (citing La Nationalité Francaise: Textes et Documents 278 (La Documentation française, 1985)). Approximately a quarter of the persons of Algerian-French dual nationality living in France appear to choose service in the Algerian forces. Id.

107 Gottlieb, supra note 1, at 108–10.

108 Second Protocol amending the Convention on the Reduction of Cases of Multiple Nationality and Military Obligations in Cases of Multiple Nationality, Nov. 2, 1993, paras. 5–7, amending Art. 1, Eur. TS No. 149. The Protocol amends Eur. TS No. 43, June 5, 1963.

109 George P. Fletcher, Loyalty 155 (1993).

110 Paine had, betimes, English, American and French citizenship and, after the Polish revolution of 1791, considered also applying for Polish citizenship. Keane, supra note 43, at 446.