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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 March 2020
With gratitude to Irina Gigova Ganaway, Alison Frank Johnson, Andrea Orzoff, and Matthew Worsnick for their insightful criticisms, to Vladislav Lilić for raising provocative questions about the nineteenth-century legal order, and to Daniel Unowsky, for encouraging a Balkan historian to cross historiographical boundaries and comment upon such excellent new scholarship.
2 Ivan Franjo Jukić, “Letter from Ivan Franjo Jukić to Brother Bono Perišić, May 5, 1849,” in Dokumentarna građa [Documentary sources] (Sarajevo: 1970), 80‒81. On Jukić's work and prominent role in defining notions of political belonging in Bosnia, see Hajdarpasic, Edin, Whose Bosnia? Nationalism and Political Imagination in the Balkans, 1840‒1914 (Ithaca, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, chapter one.
3 See for example, Mažuranić, Matija, Pogled u Bosnu [A glimpse into Bosnia] (Zagreb, 1842), 6‒8Google Scholar and various letters in Jukić's collection, such as in Dokumentarna građa, pp. 11 and 68.
4 See Mažuranić, Pogled u Bosnu, 15. For a broader discussion of quarantine at the border and larger Habsburg-Ottoman relations, see Chahrour, Marcel, “‘A Civilizing Mission’? Austrian Medicine and the Reform of Medical Structures in the Ottoman Empire, 1838‒1850,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 38, no. 4 (2007): 687‒705CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Buklijas, Tatjana and Lafferton, Emese, “Science, Medicine and Nationalism in the Habsburg Empire from the 1840s to 1918,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 38, no. 4 (2007): 679‒86CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. On nineteenth-century imperial quarantine practices more broadly, see Bulmuş, Birsen, Plague, Quarantines and Geopolitics in the Ottoman Empire (Edinburgh, 2012)Google Scholar, chapter six and Low, Michael Christopher, “Empire and the Hajj: Pilgrims, Plagues, and Pan-Islam under British Surveillance, 1865‒1908,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 40, no. 2 (2008): 269‒90CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 For reports on the ways that the border was being reframed diplomatically, see, for example, the dispatches in The Historical Boundaries between Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia 1815‒1945, ed. Anita L. P. Burdett (Cambridge, 1995), 3‒24.
6 For examples of these laws in the regions under investigation in this forum, see, for example, Cornwall, Marc, “The Habsburg Empire,” in What Is a Nation? Europe 1789‒1914, eds. Baycroft, Timothy and Hewitson, Mark (Oxford, 2006)Google Scholar; Gammerl, Benno, Subjects, Citizens, and Others: Administering Ethnic Heterogeneity in the British and Habsburg Empires, 1867‒1918 (New York, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Constantin Iordachi, “The Ottoman Empire: Syncretic Nationalism and Citizenship in the Balkans,” in What Is a Nation, 120‒51; Hanley, Will, “What Ottoman Nationality Was and Was Not,” Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 3, no. 2 (2016): 277‒98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wheatley, Natasha, “Making Nations into Legal Persons between Imperial and International Law: Scenes from a Central European History of Group Rights,” Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 28, no. 3 (2018): 481‒94Google Scholar; Hirschhausen, Ulrike Von, “From Imperial Inclusion to National Exclusion: Citizenship in the Habsburg Monarchy and in Austria 1867–1923,” European Review of History—Revue européenne d'histoire 16, no. 4 (2009): 551‒73CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zanou, Konstantina, Transnational Patriotism in the Mediterranean, 1800‒1850: Stammering the Nation (New York, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
7 On variations of sovereignty in Ottoman autonomous provinces, see Genell, Aimee M., “Autonomous Provinces and the Problem of ‘Semi-Sovereignty’ in European International Law,” Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 18, no. 6 (2016): 533‒54CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Bitis, Alexander, Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815‒1833 (Oxford, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
8 For examples of important works that investigate themes of violence, see Bartov, Omer and Weitz, Eric D., eds., Shatterzone of Empires: Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Borderlands (Bloomington, 2013)Google Scholar; Bergholz, Max, Violence as a Generative Force: Identity, Nationalism, and Memory in a Balkan Community (Ithaca, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Biondich, Mark, The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence since 1878 (New York, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Yosmaoğlu, İpek, Blood Ties: Religion, Violence and the Politics of Nationhood in Ottoman Macedonia, 1878–1908 (Ithaca, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
9 Rothenburg, Gunther E., The Military Border in Croatia 1740‒1881: A Study of an Imperial Institution (Chicago, 1966)Google Scholar.
10 Wolff, Larry, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford, 1994), 39Google Scholar.
11 Fichtner, Paula Sutter, Terror and Toleration: The Habsburg Empire Confronts Islam, 1526‒1850 (London, 2008)Google Scholar.
12 See the eloquent discussion of these Ottoman transformations in Philliou, Christine, Biography of an Empire: Governing Ottomans in an Age of Revolution (Berkeley, 2011)Google Scholar, chapter one. For recent treatments of the Ottoman military frontier in the early modern period, see Stein, Mark L., Guarding the Frontier: Ottoman Border Forts and Garrisons in Europe (London, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and the many works by Agoston, Gabor, as, such “A Flexible Empire: Authority and Its Limits on the Ottoman Frontiers,” International Journal of Turkish Studies 9, no. 1‒2 (2003): 15‒32Google Scholar.
13 This argument is made in Ebel, Kathryn A., “Representations of the Frontier in Ottoman Town Views of the Sixteenth Century,” Imago Mundi 60, no. 1 (2008): 1‒22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
14 Judson, Pieter M., Guardians of the Nation: Activists on the Language Frontiers of Imperial Austria (Cambridge, 2006)Google Scholar.
15 On the variety of South Slavic nationalisms in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see part I of Banac, Ivo, The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics (Ithaca, 1984)Google Scholar.
16 On the emergence of the “Eastern Question” as it relates to Austria, see the classic work: Roider, K. A. Jr., Austria's Eastern Question, 1700‒1790 (Princeton, 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. More recently, Holly Case probes the historical development and debates over the European “Eastern Question” in The Age of Questions: Or, a First Attempt at an Aggregate History of the Eastern, Social, Woman, American, Jewish, Polish, Bullion, Tuberculosis, and Many Other Questions Over the Nineteenth Century, and Beyond (Princeton, 2018), 70‒71 and throughout chapter five; she also discusses the Ottoman response to such challenges to their sovereignty, and the ways that the Ottomans came to understand this as the “Western Question.”
17 On the ways that European civilizing missions played out in Ottoman lands, see Rodogno, Davide, Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, 1815‒1914 (Princeton, 2012)Google Scholar.
18 On the Tanzimat reforms, see the classic works by Davison, Roderic, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856‒1876 (Princeton, 1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Shaw, Stanford, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808‒1975 (Cambridge, 1977)Google Scholar; and Findley, Carter Vaughn, Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire: The Sublime Porte, 1789‒1922 (Princeton, 1980)Google Scholar.
19 This is an important theme in Hajdarpasic, Whose Bosnia and Philliou, Biography of an Empire.
20 On the historical controversies over questions of conversion in these lands, see Krstić, Tijana, Contested Conversions to Islam: Narratives of Religious Change in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire (Stanford, 2011)Google Scholar. For an analysis of Ottoman policies of conversion in the nineteenth century, see Deringil, Selim, “‘There Is No Compulsion in Religion’: On Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire: 1839–1856,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 42, no. 3 (2000): 547‒75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
21 For a broader discussion on the complexities and varieties of sovereignty, see the seminal work by Benton, Lauren, A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400‒1900 (New York, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
22 See for example, van den Boogert, Maurits H., The Capitulations and the Ottoman Legal System: Qadis, Consuls, and Beratlīs in the 18th Century (Leiden, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and De Groot, Alexander H., “The Historical Development of the Capitulatory Regime in the Ottoman Middle East from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries,” Oriente moderno 22, no. 3 (2003): 575‒604CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
23 For discussions on nineteenth-century European treaties concerning extraterritoriality as they relate to Ottoman domestic law, see chapter four in Kayaoğlu, Turan, Legal Imperialism: Sovereignty and Extraterritoriality in Japan, the Ottoman Empire, and China (New York, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
24 See for example, Can, Lâle, “The Protection Question: Central Asians and Extraterritoriality in the Late Ottoman Empire,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 48, no. 4 (2016): 679‒99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stein, Sarah Abrevaya, Extraterritorial Dreams: European Citizenship, Sephardi Jews, and the Ottoman Twentieth Century (Chicago, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kayaoğlu, Legal Imperialism; Fahmy, Ziad, “Jurisdictional Borderlands: Extraterritoriality and ‘Legal Chameleons’ in Precolonial Alexandria, 1840‒1870,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 55, no. 2 (2013): 305‒29CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ahmed, Faiz, “Contested Subjects: Ottoman and British Jurisdictional Quarrels in re Afghans and Indian Muslims,” Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 3, no. 2 (2016): 325‒46CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
25 The question of sovereignty in the Habsburg Empire and its successor states is analyzed in Natasha Grace Wheatley, “Law, Time, and Sovereignty in Central Europe: Imperial Constitutions, Historical Rights, and the Afterlives of Empire” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 2016).
26 Weitz, Eric D., “From the Vienna to the Paris System: International Politics and the Entangled Histories of Human Rights, Forced Deportations, and Civilizing Missions,” The American Historical Review 113, no. 5 (2008): 1313‒43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
27 Okey, Robin, Taming Balkan Nationalism: The Habsburg “Civilizing Mission” in Bosnia 1878‒1914 (New York, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
28 For example, see Lackey, Scott W., “A Secret Austro-Hungarian Plan to Intervene in the 1884 Timok Uprising in Serbia: Unpublished Documents,” Austrian History Yearbook 23 (1992): 149‒59CrossRefGoogle Scholar. We also see this in Tamara Scheer's analysis of the Austro-Hungarian role in the Ottomans’ borderland province of the sançak of Novi Pazar: Scheer, Tamara, Minimale Kosten, absolut kein Blut: Österreich-Ungarns Präsenz im Sandžak von Novipazar (1879–1908) (Frankfurt, 2013)Google Scholar.
29 See Amzi-Erdogdular, Leyla, “Alternative Muslim Modernities: Bosnian Intellectuals in the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 59, no. 4 (2017): 912‒43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
30 See for example, Donia, Robert J., Islam under the Double Eagle: The Muslims of Bosnia and Hercegovina, 1878‒1914 (Boulder, 1981)Google Scholar; Giomi, Fabio, “Forging Habsburg Muslim Girls: Gender, Education and Empire in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918),” History of Education 44, no. 3 (2015): 274‒92CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sugar, Peter, Industrialization of Bosnia-Hercegovina: 1878‒1918 (Seattle, 1964)Google Scholar.
31 See for example, Martić, Grgo, Zapamćenja (1829‒1878) [Memoirs] (Zagreb, 1906), 26‒27Google Scholar and Minutes of the Bosnian Franciscans in Sarajevo, 1 May 1856, in Prilozi bosansko-hercegovačkoj istoriji XIX vijeka [Contributions to Bosnia-Herzegovinian history of the 19th century] (Sarajevo, 1960), 94.
32 I have had the privilege to participate in two such events over the past two years: “The Decline and Fall of Empires: Habsburg & Ottoman,” 9‒11 November 2018 at the Remarque Institute, New York University and “Law and Legality in Modern Eastern Europe,” 4‒5 October 2019 at the Davis Center for Historical Studies, Princeton University. For examples of terrific dissertation projects on the Balkans that are crossing historiographical divides see Leyla Amzi-Erdogdular, “Afterlife of Empire: Muslim-Ottoman Relations in Habsburg Bosnia Herzegovina, 1878‒1914” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 2013); Harun Buljina, “Empire, Nation, and the Islamic World: Bosnian Muslim Reformists between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires: 1901‒1914” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 2019); Jovo Miladinovac, “Mobilization of Manpower at the End and during the Change of Empires in the Multi-Confessional Borderland Sandžak (1900s‒1920s),” Berlin Graduate School of Muslim Cultures and Societies (Free University, Humbodlt-Universität zu Berlin, and Leibniz-Zentrum Moderner Orient), scheduled for defense in 2020; and Jelena Radovanović, “Property, Law, and the Making of the Serbian Nation-State in post-Ottoman Niš” (Princeton University), scheduled for defense in spring 2020.
