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Planting the Republic: State Regulation of the Discourse on Food Shortages in Public Communication in Early Czechoslovakia (1918–21)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 March 2024

Pavel Horák
Pavel Horák*
Affiliation:
Department of Modern Social and Cultural History, Masaryk Institute and Archives CAS, Prague, Czech Republic
*
Email: horak@mua.cas.cz
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Abstract

Czechoslovakia as a victorious, yet still fragile post-imperial state, considered censorship and state propaganda to be a necessary tool to secure its legitimacy at home and abroad. From the very beginning, Czechoslovakia defined itself as a democracy with freedom of speech as its basic principle, yet at the same time, it had to deal with inner fragility and outer vulnerabilities. The strategic agenda of people's nutrition, which was closely associated with the perceived competence of state institutions, serves as a litmus test for the state's regulation of press and public speech and the implementation of republican practices and acceptable limits on public discourse. This study analyzes how the new republican state regulated information on food supply shortcomings in the press and at public gatherings. It argues that Czechoslovakia maintained the prewar Habsburg practices of censorship; however, instead of the vaguely defined public interest of the multinational monarchy, it was now used to protect the public interest of “the national state of the Czechoslovaks.” This study analyzes how the government thought about the consistency of its communication during the postwar (supply) crisis, and thus also options of how to shape a clear and positive brand of the state.

Keywords

Interwar Czechoslovakiacensorshipfreedom of speechinformation managementfood supply
Type
Article
Information
Austrian History Yearbook , First View , pp. 1 - 14
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Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Regents of the University of Minnesota

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References

1 On establishing the authority and legitimacy of the successor states of the monarchy, see Miller, Paul and Morelon, Claire, eds., Embers of Empire: Continuity and Rupture in the Habsburg Successor States after 1918 (New York, 2019)Google Scholar. For insight into the Czechoslovak situation including the agenda of food supplies, see Claire Morelon, “State Legitimacy and Continuity between the Habsburg Empire and Czechoslovakia: The 1918 Transition in Prague,” ibidem, 43–63. For a similar perspective on the Czechoslovak environment, see Jan Hájek, Dagmar Hájková, František Kolář, Vlastislav Lacina, Zdenko Maršálek, and Ivan Šedivý, Moc, vliv a autorita v procesu vzniku a utváření meziválečné ČSR 1918–1921 (Prague, 2008).

2 For the debate on Czechoslovak democracy, see Bugge, Peter, “Czech Democracy 1918–1938: Paragon or Parody,” Bohemia 47, no. 1 (2006/2007): 3–28Google Scholar; Konrád, Ota, “Widersprüchlich und unvollendet: die Demokratie der Ersten Tschechoslowakischen Republik 1918 bis 1938,” Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 66, no. 2 (2018): 337–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kopeček, Michal, “Czechoslovak Interwar Democracy and Its Critical Introspections,” The Journal of Modern European History 17, no. 1 (2019): 7–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Blaive, Muriel, “National Narratives of Czech Identity. From the 19th Century to the Present,” in Geschichtsbuch Mitteleuropa. Vom Fin de Siècle bis zur Gegenwart, ed. Pelinka, Anton (Vienna, 2012), 161–89Google Scholar.

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4 For control of information in Austria-Hungary, see Paupié, Kurt, Handbuch der österreichischen Pressegeschichte, volume II: Die zentralen pressepolitischen Einrichtungen des Staates (Vienna, 1966)Google Scholar. For a short survey of censorship bodies and the flow of information during World War I, see Healy, Maureen, Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire. Total War and Everyday Life in World War I (Cambridge, 2007)Google Scholar; Ehrenpreis, Petronilla, Kriegs- und Friedensziele im Diskurs (Innsbruck, 2005)Google Scholar; and Cornwall, Mark, “News, Rumour and the Control of Information in Austria-Hungary, 1914–1918,” History 249 (1992): 50–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the freedom of press and assembly in the Bohemian Lands, see Malý, Karel, Policejní a soudní perzekuce dělnické třídy ve druhé polovině 19. století v Čechách (Praha, 1967)Google Scholar; for the interwar period, see Horák, Pavel, “Veřejná shromáždění a státní moc (První máje v českých zemích 1918–1938),” Český časopis historický 118, no. 2 (2020): 288–415Google Scholar.

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7 An excellent comprehensive elaboration of the activities of this authority has recently been put out by Martin Klečacký, although his work does not primarily deal with the censorship agenda. See Poslušný vládce okresu. Okresní hejtman a proměny státní moci v Čechách v letech 1868–1938 (Prague, 2021).

8 Orzoff, Andrea, Battle for the Castle (Oxford, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Trust is an important factor in risk management and communication in both the public and private sectors; see Earle, Timothy C., Siegrist, Michael, and Gutscher, Heinz, Trust in Risk Management: Uncertainty and Scepticism in the Public Mind (London, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Deleuze, Gilles, Negotiations, 1972–1990 (New York, 1995)Google Scholar.

11 Walter, Reichel, “Pressearbeit ist Propagandaarbeit.” Medienverwaltung 1914–1918. Das Kriegspressequartier (KPG) (Innsbruck, 2016)Google Scholar.

12 The idea of branding the new state relates to Andrea Orzoff's work on the creation of the Czechoslovak myth in Battle for the Castle. In this context, she used the notion of “the country's (international) image” (157). This study, however, prefers the marketing concept of a “brand,” drawing inspiration from Peter Burke's The Fabrication of Louis XIV (New Haven, 1992). Burke, whose approach is close to that of Erving Goffman's, elaborates directly on “the fabrication of Louis XVI,” not on the creation of his image, as his everyday life cannot be fully “separated from” its outer image. This study perceives “brand” as a set of values. The brand is the bearer of emotions. Just as in marketing, it means a unique association that is intended to distinguish it from the competition in the minds of its targeted recipients.

13 In Slovakia under the local “military dictatorship,” the Office of the Minister with Full Powers for the Administration of Slovakia used the local military administration and its network of military censorship points. Its express propagandistic task was to prevent systematic questioning of administrative measures in the press and public addresses, hence also denial of requisitions, smuggling across the Danube, or the rising cases of theft, looting, or poaching. Natália Krajčovičová, “Zásobovanie obyvateľstva ako administratívny, ekonomický, sociálny a politický problém Úradu ministra s plnou mocou pre správu Slovenska po vzniku Československej republiky,” Historický časopis 57, no. 3 (2009): 493–509.

14 The Archives of the Office of the President, Prague, KPR 1919–1947, D 9868, Situační zprávy. Nepokoje kvůli situaci v zásobování [Situation reports, Riots due to supply situation].

15 Artur Daczicky-Heslowa, Freiherr (1874 Kutná Hora – 1945 Karlsbad, Baden-Württemberg), graduate of the Faculty of Law of the German University in Prague, in state service from 1897, 1911–13 deputy-secretary at the Ministry of the Interior in Vienna, from 1913 the district captain in Rumburk, from 1917 in Teplitz/Teplice; 1932 removed and forced into retirement for his lax approach to the Sudeten German irredentist movement; 1945 transported to Germany. Martin Klečacký et al., Slovník představitelů politické správy v Čechách v letech 1849–1918 (Prague, 2020), 129.

16 “Die tapferen Reichenberger,” Teplitz-Schönauer Anzeiger, 1 February 1919, 1.

17 Provincial Archives in Opava (PAO), Policejní ředitelství v Moravské Ostravě [Police Directorate in Moravská Ostrava] (PDMO), Box 620, sign. 71–99, Poměr vojenských a civilních úřadů ve zněmčeném území [Ratio of Military and Civil Authorities in the Germanised Area], 22 February 1919; ibidem, Okrskové velitelství v Chebu Zemskému velitelství v Praze [District Directorate in Cheb to the Provincial Directorate in Prague], 18 January 1919. The military command referred to the (Cisleithanian) constitution according to which freedom of press could be “suspended” in case of war or unrest. Thomas Olechowski, “Das Pressrecht in der Habsburgermonarchie,” in Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918, Band VIII, Politische Öffentlichkeit und Zivilgesellschaft, 2. Teilband: Die Presse als Faktor der politischen Mobilisierung, eds. H. Rumpler and P. Urbanitsch (Vienna, 2006), 1512–13.

18 On these violent acts, see, Nancy M. Wingfield, “Democracy's Violent Birth: The Czech Legionnaires and Statue Wars in the First Czechoslovak Republic,” Austrian History Yearbook 53 (2022): 1–17. See also Vojtěch Kessler, “Německé dušičky,” in Sláva republice! Oficiální svátky a oslavy v meziválečném Československu, eds. D. Hájková, P. Horák, V. Kessler and M. Michela (Prague, 2018), 397–430.

19 Cf. e.g., files in Box 620, PAO, PDMO, and other items, ibidem.

20 National Archives Prague (NAP), Prezidium Ministerské rady [Presidium of the Council of Ministers] (PMR), Box 3285, Zemský politický správce Přednostovi okresního hejtmanství v Teplicích-Šanově [Provincial Political Administrator to the Director of the District Captain's Office in Teplice-Šanov], 7 March 1919; PAO, PDMO, Box 620, sign. 71–99, Poměr vojenských a civilních úřadů [Ratio of Military and Civil Authorities], 11 March 1919.

21 Healy, Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 122–24.

22 Petronilla Ehrenpreis, “Press/Journalism (Austria-Hungary),” in 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopaedia of the First World War, eds. U. Daniel, P. Gatrell, O. Janz, H. Jones, J. Keene, A. Kramer and B. Nasson (Berlin, 2014).

23 Healy, Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 122–59.

24 PAO, PDMO, box 620, sign. 71–99, Poměr vojenských a civilních úřadů ve zněmčeném území, 22 February 1919.

25 Similar cases could have been punished as the crime of disturbing the public peace under section 65 of the Penal Code, but in 1919 they were only registered. See, for example, the relevant files of the PAO, PDMO, box 202, sign. 1385.

26 NAP, PMR, Box 3285, Zemský politický správce Přednostovi okresního hejtmanství v Teplicích-Šanově, 7 March 1919.

27 PAO, PDMO, Box 200, sign. 1031, Provádění politické tiskové cenzury [Performance of Political Censorship in Press], 19 March 1919.

28 Martin Klečacký, “Převzetí moci. Státní správa v počátcích Československé republiky 1918–1920 na příkladu Čech,” Český časopis historický 116, no. 3 (2018): 724.

29 PAO, PDMO, Box 620, sign. 71–99, Poměr vojenských a civilních úřadů, 22 February 1919; ibidem, Okrskové velitelství v Chebu Zemskému velitelství v Praze, 18 January 1919; ibidem, Poměr vojenských a civilních úřadů, 11 March 1919; NAP, PMR, Box 3285, Zemský politický správce Přednostovi okresního hejtmanství v Teplicích-Šanově, 7 March 1919.

30 NAP, PMR, Box 3285, Zemský politický správce Přednostovi okresního hejtmanství v Teplicích-Šanově, 7 March 1919.

31 The notion of “de-Austrianization” was promoted after the war by the Czechoslovak president, T. G. Masaryk. As a kind of all-society moral appeal, it focused on all areas of life. Dagmar Hájková, “Remembering Franz Ferdinand and Sarajevo in interwar Czechoslovakia,” in Sarajevo 1914. Sparking the First World War, ed. M. Cornwall (London, 2020), 275. On the phenomenon, see also Morelon, “State Legitimacy and Continuity between the Habsburg Empire and Czechoslovakia,” 53–56.

32 PAO, PDMO, Box 622, sign. 476, Prezidium zemské vlády slezské podřízeným úřadům [Presidium of the Silesian Provincial Governorate to the Subordinate Authorities], 13 June 1919.

33 Dudeková, Človek vo vojne, 181.

34 This is how national coexistence was formulated by Mark Cornwall, The Devil's Wall. The Nationalist Youth Mission of Heinz Rutha (Cambridge, 2012).

35 Klečacký, Poslušný vládce okresu, 51–52.

36 Ibid.

37 Peter Heumos, “Kartoffeln her oder es gibt eine Revolution: Hungerkrawalle, Streiks und Massenproteste in den böhmischen Ländern 1914–1918,” in Der Erste Weltkrieg und die Beziehungen zwischen Tschechen, Slowaken und Deutschen, eds. Hans Mommsen, Dušan Kováč and Jiří Malíř (Essen, 2001), 271. The end of warfare after the armistice in the autumn of 1918 did not immediately lead to peace in the streets. While, for instance, in Austria, the lack of a central state power and a promising future were the cause of deeper disintegration, it was easier for the victorious Czechoslovakia to renew the state monopoly of violence. See Konrád and Kučera, Paths Out of the Apocalypse. For the transnational approach to studying the unrests, see Jakub Beneš, “The Colour of Hope: The Legacy of the ‘Green Cadres’ and the Problem of Rural Unrest in the First Czechoslovak Republic,” Contemporary European History 28, no. 3 (2019): 285–302. The traditional heroic narrative about the establishment of Czechoslovakia was also relativized by studies of antisemitism; see Michal Frankl and Miloslav Szabó, Budování státu bez antisemitismu? Násilí, diskurz loajality a vznik Československa (Prague, 2015).

38 This was firstly verbal assaults on the state and damaging the reputation of state institutions, in particular, Sect. 300 of the Criminal Code dealing with “defamation, ridicule and misleading information and distortion of facts, which is intended to degrade the measures and decisions adopted by authorities”; secondly it was (mis)information which is intended to escalate interpersonal relationships, thus hindering peaceful cohabitation in the given location, in particular Sect. 305, 308, and 310 of the Criminal Code dealing with the dissemination of “false news that unsettles public security.”

39 PAO, PDMO, Box 622, sign. 552–575, Schůze spolku Spravedlnost v Moravské Ostravě v hostinci Bronnerově [Meeting of the ‘Spravedlnost’ (Justice) Association in Moravská Ostrava in Bronner's Pub], 28 February 1919; ibidem, Policejní komisařství v Moravské Ostravě Státnímu návladnictví v Novém Jičíně [Police Commissariat in Moravská Ostrava to the State Prosecutor's Office in Nový Jičín], 19 March 1919.

40 PAO, PDMO, Box 200, sign. 1031, Presidium zemské vlády slezské přednostům okresních hejtmanství ve Slezsku [Presidium of the Silesian Provincial Governorate], 28 January 1919; NAP, PMR, Box 3285, Zemský politický správce Přednostovi okresního hejtmanství v Teplicích-Šanově, 7 March 1919; PAO, PDMO, Box 620, sign. 71–99, Poměr vojenských a civilních úřadů, 11 March 1919.

41 PAO, PDMO, Box 203, sign. 7, “Stejnoměrnost konfiskační praxe” [Unification of Confiscation Practice], 9 February 1920.

42 See e.g., repeated confiscations of Deutsche Post, an Opava-based daily, in 1919–20 following numerous complaints. PAO, Zemská vláda slezská Opava [Provincial Silesian Government in Opava] (ZVSO), Box 5139, inv. no. 2398.

43 NAP, PMR, Box 50, Prezídium ministerstva vnitra Prezídiu ministerstva národní obrany [Presidium of the Ministry of the Interior to the Presidium of the Ministry of National Defense], 15 May 1920; Pavel Horák, “První máj” [May Day], in Sláva republice!, 225.

44 PAO, PDMO, Box 203, sign. 7, “Tisková cenzura” [Censorship of Press], 11 September 1920, výnos prezídia ministerstva vnitra č. 9763 N. [Decree of the Presidium of the Ministry of the Interior No. 9763 N.], 18 November 1919.

45 Horák, “Veřejná shromáždění a státní moc,” 288–415.

46 Frankl and Szabó, Budování státu bez antisemitismu? 89; Konrád and Kučera, Paths out of the Apocalypse, 270; Werner Bergmann, “Exclusionary Riots. Some Theoretical Considerations,” in Exclusionary Violence. Antisemitic Riots in Modern German History, eds. Ch. Hoffmann, W. Bergmann and H. W. Smith (Ann Arbor, 2002), 161–84.

47 Horák, “Veřejná shromáždění a státní moc,” 393–94.

48 PAO, PDMO, Box 620, sign. 39, Plenění u židovských živnostníků legionáři [Looting of Jewish Businesses by Legionnaires], 27 January 1919. Also see Wingfield, “Democracy's Violent Birth,” 1–17.

49 Ibidem.

50 PAO, PDMO, Box 200, sign. 1031, Censurní předpis [Censorship Guideline], 23 January 1919; NAP, PMR, Box 3285, Tiskové zprávy o vojenských záležitostech [Press Releases in Military Matters], 17 November 1920.

51 Michal Frankl and Miloslav Szabó, “Vznik ČSR doprovázelo i protižidovské násilí,” in T.G.M. v kostce, eds. D. Hájková, P. Horák and L. Rous (Prague, 2000), 46.

52 Ferdinand Peroutka, Budování státu, I (Praha, 1991), 302; Vojtěch Fejlek and Richard Vašek, eds., T. G. Masaryk. Cesta demokracie I. Projevy – články – rozhovory 1918–1920 (Praha, 2003), 33. The author would like to thank Dagmar Hájková for this reference.

53 Michael Wildt, Volksgemeinschaft als Selbstermächtigung. Gewalt gegen Juden in der deutschen Provinz 1919 bis 1939 (Hamburg 2007).

54 In hate speech, this was primarily Sect. 302 of the Criminal Code. Concerning the results of this practice of confiscation, see e.g., PAO, ZVSO, Box 5139, inv. no. 2393, Státní zastupitelství v Opavě Presidiu zemské vlády slezské [State Prosecutor's Office in Opava to the Presidium of the Provincial Governorate], 17 February 1921.

55 Rašple. List politicko humoristický [Rasper. A Politically Humorous Newspaper], 1 December 1919, 2.

56 PAO, ZVSO, Box 5146, inv. no. 2410, Theatre play “Liselotte von der Pfalz,” censorship, 14 September 1920; ibidem, Theatre play “Der Feldherrnhügel,” censorship, 14 September 1920; ibidem, Policejní ředitelství v Praze Zemské vládě slezské v Opavě [Police Directorate in Prague to the Silesian Provincial Governorate in Opava], 16 November 1919; ibidem, Theatre play “Wiener Gemütlichkeit oder Das Sperrsechserl,” censorship, 25 October 1920; Andreas Dörner, “Die symbolische Politik der Ehre, Zur Konstruktion der nationalen Ehre in den Diskursen der Befreiungskriege,” in Ehre, Archaische Momente in der Moderne, eds. L. Vogt and A. Zingerle (Frankfurt am Main, 1994), 78–95.

57 PAO, PDMO, Box 203, sign. 7, Nepřípustné psaní německého tisku proti spojencům Československé republiky, 21. února 1920 [Unacceptable comments by the German press against the allies of the Czechoslovak Republic, 21 February 1920].

58 PAO, ZVSO, Box 5137, sign. XIII/120, Schlesische Landesregierung allen Herren Leiter der politischen Behörden I. Instanz in Schlesien (ausgenommen Teschen und Bielitz), den Herr Leiter der Polizeikommissariaten in Mähr. Ostrau und der Grenzpolizeiexpositur in Oderberg – Bahnhof, 22 July 1919; Republika. Niezalezne tygodniowe pismo ludowe [Republic. People's Independent Weekly], 28 June 1919, 7.

59 Orzoff, Battle for the Castle, 8.

60 Petr Jelínek, Zahraničně-politické vztahy Československa a Polska 1918–1924 (Opava, 2009), 100.

61 Slovak National Archives (SNA), Minister Československej republiky s plnou mocou pre správu Slovenska (MPS), Box 307, Hlasovanie ľudu, leaflet.

62 SNA, MPS, Box 307, Jako Czesi naród okłamują, leaflet.

63 The Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic, Těšínsko, Box 22, Report of 10 December 1919.

64 PAO, PDMO, Box 203, sign. 7, Vrchní státní zastupitelství v Brně Státnímu zastupitelství novojičínskému [Supreme State Prosecutor's Office in Brno to the State Prosecutor's Office in Nový Jičín], 22 December 1921.

65 Catherine Albrecht, “The Rhetoric of Economic Nationalism in the Bohemian Boycott Campaigns of the Late Habsburg Monarchy,” Austrian History Yearbook 32 (2001): 47–67.

66 Morelon, “State Legitimacy and Continuity between the Habsburg Empire and Czechoslovakia,” 50.

67 E.g., NAP, Ministerstvo pro zásobování lidu [Ministry for People's Supply] (MZL), Box 560, Různé zprávy pro tisk a informační zprávy [Various Press Releases and Information Releases], 1919–31.

68 PAO, PDMO, Box 198, sign. 561, “Vládní prohlášení o akci ku zmírnění bídy, přednesené v sezení Národního shromáždění československého dne 23. května 1919” [Government's Announcement of Action to Mitigate Poverty, Delivered at a Session of the Czechoslovak National Assembly on 23 May 1919].

69 NAP, MZL, Box 55, Plebiscitní komise při ministerstvu vnitra [Plebiscite Commission of the Ministry of the Interior], 20 October 1919.

70 V. Johanis, “Úkoly zásobovací služby” [Tasks of the Supply Service], Věstník ministerstva pro zásobování lidu v Československé republice, 21 August 1920, 1.

71 NAP, MZL, Box 560, výkaz o činnosti 1919, rozpočet 1922 [Activity Report, 1919; Budget, 1922], etc.

72 NAP, PMR, Box 3286, Zprávy pro tisk. Oběžník Ministerstva pro zásobování lidu [Press Releases. Circular of the Ministry for People's Supply].

73 NAP, PMR, Box 3287, Tisková služba, tiskové opravy [Press Service, press corrections], 9 March 1921; ibidem, Útoky na státní úřady [Assaults on State Authorities], 29 September 1921.

74 NAP, PMR, Box. 3286, Article “Ministerstvo zásobování” [Ministry for People's Supply] in vol. 60 and 61 of Čas [Time] of 21 and 22 August 1920; ibidem, Informace tisku úřednictvem [Information Provided to Press by Officials], 14 June 1921; ibidem, Informování tisku úřednictvem [Information Provided to Press by Officials], article “Ministerstvo zásobování.”

75 NAP, PMR, Box 3285, Magazine Československá republika [Czechoslovak Republic], 3 September 1920, “Obvinění šéfa politické správy v Karlových Varech z nadržování lichvě” [Accusation of the Director of Political Administration in Karlovy Vary of Siding with Usury].

76 For a comprehensive overview of the resolutions, see the Hoover Institution Archives (HIA), Štefan Osuský Papers (SOP), Box 75, “Publikování článků a informací československé státní správy” [Publication of Articles and Information by the Czechoslovak State Authorities], July 1942.

77 Cornwall, “News, Rumour and the Control of Information in Austria-Hungary, 1914–1918,” 59.

78 NAP, PMR, Box 3285, Presidium ministerské rady Hradu na Hradčanech, 7. 3. 1919 [PMR to the Office of the President, 7 March 1919].

79 Pehr, Michal, “Československá propaganda ve třicátých letech 20. století. Nesnadná cesta k vytvoření ministerstva propagandy,” Centre. Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies of Central Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries 5, no. 2 (2013): 57–76Google Scholar.

80 Horák, “Veřejná shromáždění a státní moc.”