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² Langlois, Richard N., “External Economies and Economic Progress: The Case of the Microcomputer Industry,” Business History Review 66 (Spring 1992): 1–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ Hoch, Detlev J., Roeding, Cyriac R., Purkert, Gert, and Linder, Sandra K., Secrets of Software Success: Management Insights from 100 Software Finns Around the World (Boston, Mass., 2000Google Scholar).

⁴ The literature on Microsoft is not rewarding to study in its entirety. The best semitechnical account of the development of Microsoft and its products is by Ichbiah, Daniel and Knepper, Susan L., The Making of Microsoft (Rocklin, Calif., 1991Google Scholar). Good economic perspectives are provided by Stross, Randall E., The Microsoft Way (Reading, Mass., 1996Google Scholar), and Liebowitz, Stanley J. and Margolis, Stephen E., Winners, Losers and Microsoft: Competition and Antitrust in High Technology (Oakland, Calif., 1999Google Scholar). Of the journalistic accounts, the two best are: Wallace, James and Erickson, Jim, Hard Drive: Bill Gates and the Making of the Microsoft Empire (New York, 1992Google Scholar); and Manes, Stephen and Andrews, Paul, Gates: How Microsoft's Mogul Reinvented an Industry—and Made Himself the Richest Man in America (New York, 1994Google Scholar). In a different genre, but containing many historical insights, is the excellent book by Cusumano, Michael A. and Selby, Richard W., Microsoft Secrets (New York, 1995Google Scholar).

⁵ Anon., “The Shakeout in Software: It's Already Here,” Business Week, 23 Aug. 1984, 96–8.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ For a history and discussion of the corporate software industry, see Campbell-Kelly, Martin, “Development and Structure of the International Software Industry, 1950–1990,” Business and Economic History 24 (Winter 1995): 73–110Google Scholar; Steinmueller, W. Edward, “The U.S. Software Industry: An Analysis and Interpretive History,” in The International Software Industry: A Comparative Study of Industry Evolution and Structure, Mowery, David C., ed. (New York, 1996Google Scholar); and U.S. Department of Commerce, A Competitive Assessment of the United States Software Industry (Washington, D.C., 1984Google Scholar).

⁸ James Aley, “The Theory that Made Microsoft,” Fortune, 29 April 1996, 23–4.

⁹ Arthur, Brian W., “Competing Technologies, Increasing Returns, and Lock-In by Historical Events,” Economic journal 99 (1989): 116–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Positive Feedbacks in the Economy,” Scientific American (Feb. 1990): 92–9; “Increasing Returns and the New World of Business,” Harvard Business Review (July–Aug. 1996): 100–09; Church, Jeffrey and Gandal, Neil, “Network Effects, Software Provision, and Standardization,” Journal of Industrial Economics 60 (1992): 85–103CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹ Tim Paterson, “An Inside Look at MS-DOS,” Byte (June 1983): 230ff.

¹² Gilbert, Richard J. “Networks, Standards, and the Use of Market Dominance: Microsoft (1995)” in Kwoka, John E. Jr., and White, Lawrence J., The Antitrust Revolution: Economics, Competition and Policy (Oxford 1999), 409–29Google Scholar.

¹³ Chposky, James and Leonsis, Ted, Blue Magic: The People, Power and Politics Behind the IBM Personal Computer (New York, 1988Google Scholar).

¹⁴ Paterson, “Inside Look at MS-DOS.”

¹⁵ The advertisement quoted appeared in Byte (May 1983).

¹⁶ Fertig, Robert T., The Software Revolution: Trends, Players, Market Dynamics in Personal Computer Software (New York, 1985), 118Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Ibid., 132.

¹⁸ Efrem Sigel and the staff of Communications Trends, Business/Professional Microcomputer Software Market, 1984–86 (White Plains, N.Y., 1984), 32Google Scholar.

¹⁹ This and the foregoing statistics appear in Ichbiah and Knepper, The Making of Microsoft, 86ff.

²⁰ David, Paul A., “Understanding the Economics of QWERTY: The Necessity of History,” in Economic History and the Modern Economist, Parker, William N., ed. (Oxford, 1986), 30–49Google Scholar.

²¹ Liebowitz, Stan J. and Margolis, Stephen E., “The Fable of the Keys,” Journal of Law and Economics 33 (1990):l–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Reprinted in Leibowitz and Margolis, Winners, Losers and Microsoft, 19–44.

²² Brian W. Arthur, “Increasing Returns and the New World of Business.”

²³ Gates, Bill, The Road Ahead (New York, 1995Google Scholar).

²⁴ Carlton, Jim, Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders (New York, 1997), 40–3Google Scholar.

²⁵ John Walker, ed., 4th ed., The Autodesk File: Bits of History, Words of Experience (no publisher stated, 1994): http://www.fourmilab.ch/autofile/; 3rd ed. published by New Riders Publishing, Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1989. See also Jonathan Richardson, “A Decade of CAD,” CAD User (March 1998): 20–2, 26, 28.

²⁶ Walker, The Autodesk File, 24.

²⁷ Ibid., 299.

²⁸ Ibid., 296–304.

²⁹ The concepts of paradigm shift, technological closure, and critical problems are informed by the works of Kuhn, Hughes, and Rosenberg, among others. See Kuhn, Thomas, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, 1962Google Scholar); Hughes, Thomas Park, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930 (Baltimore, 1983Google Scholar); and Rosenberg, Nathan, Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics (Cambridge, 1982Google Scholar).

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³³ Phil Lemmons, “A Guided Tour of VisiOn,” Byte (June 1983): 256ff.

³⁴ Irene Fuerst, “Broken Windows,” Datamation, 1 March 1985, 46, 51–2.

³⁵ John Markoff, “Five Window Managers for the IBM PC,” Byte Guide to the IBM PC (Fall 1984): 65–6, 71–6, 78, 82, 84, 87.

³⁶ Efrem Sigel, “Alas Poor VisiCorp,” Datamation, 15 Jan. 1985, 93–4, 96.

³⁷ Graham, Lawrence D., Legal Battles that Shaped the Computer Industry (Westport, Conn., 1999), 35–41Google Scholar.

³⁸ The best account of the complicated history of OS/2 appears in Carroll, Paul, Big Blues: The Unmaking of IBM (New York, 1993Google Scholar).

³⁹ As quoted in Wallace and Erickson, Hard Drive, 362.

⁴⁰ Cusumano and Selby, Microsoft Secrets.

⁴¹ Peter Petre, “The Man Who Keeps the Bloom on Lotus,” Fortune, 10 June 1985, 92–4, 96, 98, 100.

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⁴⁵ Petersen, W. E. Pete, AlmostPerfect: How a Bunch of Regular Guys Built WordPerfect Corporation (Rocklin, Calif. 1994Google Scholar).

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⁴⁸ Atchinson, Sandra D., “A Perfectly Good Word for WordPerfect: Gutsy,” Business Week, 2 Oct. 1989, 79–80.Google Scholar

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⁵⁷ Brandt, Richard, “Software Will Play Hardball Again,” Business Week, 10 Jan. 1994, 48.Google Scholar

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⁶⁰ Bill Lawrence, “Three Suite Deals,” Byte (March 1994): 120–4, 6.

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⁶⁶ Paul M. Horvitz, “Efficiency and Antitrust Considerations in Home Banking: The Proposed Microsoft-Intuit Merger,” Antitrust Bulletin (Summer 1996): 427–16.

⁶⁷ Brandt, Richard, “It's Grab-Your-Partner Time for Software Makers,” Business Week, 8 Feb. 1988, 52–3.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Hafner, Katherine M., “How Two Pioneers Brought Publishing to the Desktop,” Business Week, 15 Oct. 1987, 61–2Google Scholar; Brandt, Richard, “Does Adobe Have a Paper Cutter?” Business Week, 6 Nov. 1992, 98–9Google Scholar; Cortese, Amy, “This Acrobat Has Really Limbered Up,” Business Week, 26 Sept. 1994, 73–4.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Cusumano, Michael A. and Yoffie, David B., Competing on Internet Time: Lessons from Netscape and its Battle with Microsoft (New York, 1998Google Scholar).

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⁷⁴ Ibid., 55.