¹ Nørgård, Per, Gilgamesh (Copenhagen, 1972)Google Scholar, Night 6⁺³ (three bars after the beginning of Night 6).

² Nørgård, , Siddharta (Copenhagen, 1979)Google Scholar, Act III letter T^–1.

³ Johnson, Stephen, ‘Fishing for the Notes: Interview’, The Full Score 7 (1995)Google Scholar.

⁴ Everett, Yayoi Uno, Reconfiguring Myth and Narrative in Contemporary Opera: Osvaldo Golijov, Kaija Saariaho, John Adams, and Tan Dun (Bloomington, IN, 2015), 29–30Google Scholar.

⁵ Nørgård, Per, ‘Sibelius og Danmark’, Suomen musiikin vuosikirja [Finnish Music Yearbook] 1964–65 (Helsinki, 1965), 167–70Google Scholar; ‘Nørgård-Sibelius-korrespondancen og En eftertanke – 43 år efter’, Dansk musiktidsskrift 72/1 (1997–8), 12–17.

⁶ Anderson, Julian, ‘Perception and Deception: Aspects of Per Nørgård's “Hierarchical” Methods and Parallel Developments in Recent Central European Music’, in The Music of Per Nørgård: Fourteen Interpretive Essays, ed. Beyer, Anders (Aldershot, 1996), 147–66Google Scholar, at 151; Nørgård, programme note, Den fortryllede skov [Enchanted Forest] (1968), www.wisemusicclassical.com/work/21417/The-Den-fortryllede-skov--Per-Nørgård/.

⁷ Christensen, Jean, ‘Per Nørgård's Works for Early Music Ensemble’, Journal of the Viola da Gamba Society of America 22 (1985), 35–41Google Scholar.

⁸ Karl Aage Rasmussen, ‘Connections and Interspaces: Per Nørgård's Thinking’, in The Music of Per Nørgård, 57–70; Godwin, Joscelyn, ‘Stockhausen's Donnerstag aus Licht and Gnosticism’, in Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times, ed. van den Broek, Roelof and Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (Albany, NY, 1998), 347–58Google Scholar; Bandur, Markus, ‘“… alles aus einem Kern entfaltet, thematisch und strukturell”. Karlheinz Stockhausen und die Rezeption des Urantia Book in LICHT’, in Internationales Stockhausen-Symposion 2000: LICHT, ed. Misch, Imke, Blumröder, Christoph and Moersen, Henning (Münster, 2004), 136–44Google Scholar.

⁹ Jenkins, Matthew and Harvey, Jonathan, ‘A Search for Emptiness: An Interview with Jonathan Harvey’, Perspectives of New Music 44/2 (2006), 220–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harvey, , ‘Sounding out the Inner Self. Jonathan Harvey's Quest for the Spiritual Core of New Music’, The Musical Times 133/1798 (1992), 613–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ Mackenzie, Kirk, ‘RA’, The Canadian Encyclopedia (Toronto, 2013)Google Scholar.

¹¹ On Monk's Atlas, see Bonnie Marranca, ‘Meredith Monk's Atlas of Sound: New Opera and the American Performance Tradition’, in Meredith Monk, ed. Deborah Jowitt (Baltimore, 1997), 175–83.

¹² For a survey of musical compositions based on the Gilgamesh epic, see Theodore Ziolkowski, Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters with the Ancient Epic (Ithaca, NY, 2011).

¹³ A recording of the revised version was issued on LP as EMI DMA 025–026 (1977), with the Swedish Radio Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Tamás Vető. It was later reissued on CD as Dacapo DCCD 9001 (1990). See Morten Topp, ‘Per Nørgård: “Gilgamesh”’, Danish Yearbook of Musicology 9 (1978), 175–7. Gilgamesh was not Nørgård's first setting of an ancient Mesopotamian myth. In 1965/8, he composed Babel, an hour-long ‘happening-composition for soloists, chorus, instrumentalists, dancers, mimes, acrobats et cetera’.

¹⁴ In the opera, Nørgård employs the name Huwawa for the character usually identified as Humbaba in modern editions of the Gilgamesh epic. Similarly, he employs the name Ishara for the character usually identified as Shamhat.

¹⁵ Joseph Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 3rd edn (Novato, CA, 2008). The Hero with A Thousand Faces has been translated into over twenty languages since the first edition was published in 1949. See https://jcf.org/titles/the-hero-with-a-thousand-faces/.

¹⁶ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 23, 173; on The Epic of Gilgamesh, see 158–61.

¹⁷ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 23.

¹⁸ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 23.

¹⁹ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 23.

²⁰ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 28.

²¹ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 48.

²² Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 64.

²³ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 81.

²⁴ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 158–61.

²⁵ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 188.

²⁶ ‘The Standard Version of the Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: “He who saw the deep”’, Tablet I 5–7, in The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian, trans. Andrew George (London, 1999), 1.

²⁷ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 222.

²⁸ For a contextual discussion of Campbell's ideas about the ‘eternal cycle of life’, see Victoria Adamenko, Neo-Mythologism in Music: From Scriabin and Schoenberg to Schnittke and Crumb (Hillsdale, NY, 2007), 20–2.

²⁹ Carl G. Jung, ‘The Psychology of the Child Archetype’, in Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, trans. R. F. C. Hull, 2nd edn (Princeton, 1969), 151–81, at 164.

³⁰ On the archetypes as pre-existent forms, see Jung, ‘The Concept of the Collective Unconscious’, in Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, 42–53, at 43. On individuation, see Jung, ‘Conscious, Unconscious, and Individuation’, in Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, 275–89, at 287–8.

³¹ Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 12; Everett, Reconfiguring Myth and Narrative in Contemporary Opera, 29. Ritske Rensma has noted parallels between the Jungian concept of individuation and the ‘hero's journey’ in The Innateness of Myth: A New Interpretation of Joseph Campbell's Reception of C.G. Jung (New York, 2009), 109–11.

³² Jung, ‘Conscious, Unconscious, and Individuation’, 284–5; Ann Casement, ‘The Shadow’, in The Handbook of Jungian Psychology: Theory, Practice and Applications, ed. Renos K. Papadopoulos (London, 2006), 94–112, at 94–6.

³³ On the collective shadow and Nazism, see Casement, ‘The Shadow’, 103–5; Michael Gellert, ‘The Eruption of the Shadow in Nazi Germany’, Psychological Perspectives 37/1 (1998): 72–89. On Jung's attitude to the Nazis, see Stephen Frosh, ‘Jung and the Nazis: Some Implications for Psychoanalysis’, Psychoanalysis and History 7/2 (2005), 253–71.

³⁴ M.-L. von Franz, ‘The Process of Individuation’, in Man and his Symbols, ed. Carl G. Jung (New York, 1964), 158–229, at 177–80.

³⁵ Von Franz, ‘The Process of Individuation’, 196.

³⁶ According to Bo Marschner, ‘The composer conceives the opera as a history of mankind's development’ (menschliche Entwicklungsgeschichte). See Marschner, ‘Das “Gilgamesh-Epos” von Bohuslav Martinů und die Oper “Gilgamesh” von Per Nørgård’, in Bohuslav Martinů, His Pupils, Friends and Contemporaries: Brno 1990, ed. Petr Maček (Brno, 1993), 138–51, at 141.

³⁷ Jens Brincker and Karl Aage Rasmussen have noted the opera's psychological dimension and connected it to Jungian ideas. See Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård’, Danish Musicology Online (1988–9), 150, www.danishmusicologyonline.dk/arkiv/arkiv_musik_og_forskning_pdf/mf_1988_1989/mf1988-89_06_ocr.pdf; Johnson, ‘Fishing for the Notes’.

³⁸ C. A. Meier has interpreted Gilgamesh's successive confrontations in the epic as structural antitheses within the narrative: ‘The Gods send the hero Gilgamesh a paredros (friend and companion), the half-bestial Enkidu, who represents the personal shadow of Gilgamesh. They fight and are reconciled, and after that Gilgamesh knows he can count on him (shadow that has become positive). But then the Gods send the giant Humbaba and the bull, who correspond to the collective aspect of the shadow; one might say they represent collective evil, which must simply tale quale be conquered by the hero, i.e., cannot be assimilated.’ Carl Alfred Meier, Personality: The Individuation Process in Light of C. G. Jung's Typology, trans. David N. Roscoe (Einsiedeln, 1995), 90.

³⁹ Joseph L. Henderson, ‘Ancient Myths and Modern Man’, in Man and his Symbols, 104–57, at 111–12.

⁴⁰ On the negative anima, see Von Franz, ‘The Process of Individuation’, 178–82.

⁴¹ See Carl G. Jung, Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice: The Tavistock Lectures (London, 2014), 30–1.

⁴² Edward F. Edinger, Ego and Archetype: Individuation and the Religious Function of the Psyche (Boston, 1992), 4.

⁴³ Edinger, Ego and Archetype, 7.

⁴⁴ On binary oppositions in mythic thinking, see Adamenko, Neo-Mythologism in Music, 28.

⁴⁵ See Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård's Music Drama: Failures, Triumphs and New Beginnings’, in The Music of Per Nørgård, 189–215, at 195–6, 202–3.

⁴⁶ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Evening 6.

⁴⁷ Hans Gefors, ‘Make Change Your Choice! Nørgård and Nordic melody’, in The Music of Per Nørgård, 35–55, at 50.

⁴⁸ Jørgen I. Jensen, booklet notes to Nørgård, Gilgamesh; Voyage into the Golden Screen, Dacapo DCCD 9001, 18.

⁴⁹ Jensen, booklet notes to Nørgård, Gilgamesh, 19.

⁵⁰ ‘Gilgamesch-Oper in Stockholm’, Opernwelt 17/5 (1976), 9.

⁵¹ Eva Redvall, ‘Stockholm’, Opera News 40/23 (1976), 48–9. In the review, Redvall mistakenly identifies the sun god Shamash as the high priest of Uruk.

⁵² ‘The play [The Epic of Gilgamesh] ends with Gilgamesh standing on the brink of death, Per Nørgård's opera ends with the hero's rebirth … Its overall course moves from man's creation to his rebirth, from night to day, from spring to new spring.’ Jensen, Per Nørgårds Musik: Et verdensbillede i forandring (Copenhagen, 1986), 126 [translation mine].

⁵³ ‘Gilgamesch-Oper in Stockholm’, 9.

⁵⁴ On Nørgård's interest in cosmic cycles, see Nørgård, Ambiguity: In Musical Composition, in Musical Experience, and in Man: Reflections on a Millennial Change (Aldeburgh, 1999).

⁵⁵ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 2 letter D⁺⁵.

⁵⁶ ‘[Ishtar]'s nature and behaviour in our text are characteristic of a type of early earth goddess who is both the source of fertility and life as well as the cause of death and the receiver of the dead.’ Tzvi Abusch, ‘Ishtar's Proposal and Gilgamesh's Refusal: An Interpretation of “The Gilgamesh Epic”, Tablet 6, Lines 1–79’, History of Religions 26/2 (1986), 159.

⁵⁷ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 5 letter K⁺⁷.

⁵⁸ Abusch, ‘Ishtar's Proposal and Gilgamesh's Refusal’, 152.

⁵⁹ Abusch, ‘Ishtar's Proposal and Gilgamesh's Refusal’, 158.

⁶⁰ Abusch, ‘Ishtar's Proposal and Gilgamesh's Refusal’, 179: ‘Gilgamesh must eventually die. But in tablet 6, he is not yet ready to accept a new identity and assume a role in the netherworld. He has not yet … realized that the loss of his mortal life is inevitable … Although Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar's offer, he already senses that he will eventually have to come to terms with death.’ See also Abusch, ‘The Development and Meaning of the Epic of Gilgamesh: An Interpretive Essay’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 121/4 (2001), 614–22, at 621.

⁶¹ ‘The Anunnaki, the great gods, held an assembly, Mammitum, maker of destiny, fixed fates with them: both Death and Life they have established, but the day of Death they do not disclose.’ ‘The Standard Version’, Tablet X 319–22, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 86–7.

⁶² Campbell, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, 210.

⁶³ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 6, III, Marsday letter F⁺⁷.

⁶⁴ Guido Bachmann, Gilgamesch (Wiesbaden, 1966), 123, trans. in Theodore Ziolkowski, Gilgamesh Among Us, 93.

⁶⁵ ‘Bilgames and the Netherworld’, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 191–5.

⁶⁶ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 6, III, Marsday letter D.

⁶⁷ Jonathan Cross, Harrison Birtwistle: The Mask of Orpheus (Farnham, 2009); David Beard, Harrison Birtwistle's Operas and Music Theatre (Cambridge, 2012), 79–158.

⁶⁸ R. Murray Schafer, My Life on Earth and Elsewhere (Erin, ON, 2012), 168–74; Schafer, Patria: The Complete Cycle (Toronto, 2002).

⁶⁹ Schafer, ‘Isis and Nephthys’ (from Ra [1983]), www.youtube.com/watch?v=BfiaeLJ1Qbs.

⁷⁰ ‘See the Sun God, Shamash!’ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Night 1 letter F.

⁷¹ ‘With the act of being placed in the coffin and buried, the deceased enters the womb of the Great Mother, the sky-goddess: all life comes from her, and in her body, the deceased is rejuvenated in the eternal cycle of life, on the model of the sun.’ Jan Assmann, Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt (Ithaca, NY, 2005), 408.

⁷² For example, ‘Shamash heard what he had spoken, straight away from the sky there cried out a voice.’ ‘The Standard Version’, Tablet VII 132–3, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 58.

⁷³ In the epic, Ishtar's father Anu rebukes her for provoking Gilgamesh's anger. See ‘The Standard Version’, Tablet VI 87–91, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 50.

⁷⁴ See Von Franz, ‘The Process of Individuation’, 161–2.

⁷⁵ See Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård's Music Drama’, 200–1.

⁷⁶ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 2 letters G, J.

⁷⁷ ‘Create Enkido, so Uruk gains peace.’ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Night 4 letters F–G; ‘The Standard Version’, Tablet I 67–93, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 3–4.

⁷⁸ ‘Enkido … blocked the door of the wedding house, not allowing Gilgamesh to enter. They seized each other at the door … in the street they joined combat … They kissed each other and formed a friendship.’ ‘The Standard Version’, II 111–14; Yale Tablet 18, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 16–17.

⁷⁹ ‘I am afraid of death, so I wander the wild.’ ‘The Standard Version’, Tablet IX 5, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 70.

⁸⁰ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 5 letters Q–R.

⁸¹ Stockhausen, Donnerstag aus Licht, Act III scene 2, ‘Vision’. On the interpretation of Donnerstag, see Pascal Bruno, ‘Donnerstag aus Licht: A New Myth, or Simply an Updating of a Knowledge?’ Perspectives of New Music 37/1 (1999), 133–56.

⁸² On Tippett's interest in Jung, see Oliver Soden, Michael Tippett: The Biography (London, 2019); David Clarke, The Music and Thought of Michael Tippett: Modern Times and Metaphysics (Cambridge, 2001); Ian Kemp, Tippett: The Composer and His Music (Oxford, 1987).

⁸³ Arnold Whittall suggests that Tippett complicates the relationship of Mark and Jenifer at the opera's conclusion by purely musical means. See Whittall, ‘New Opera, Old Opera: Perspectives on Critical Interpretation’, Cambridge Opera Journal 21/2 (2009), 192–8.

⁸⁴ See Barbara Lee Horn, The Age of Hair: Evolution and Impact of Broadway's First Rock Musical (Westport, CT, 1991), 106.

⁸⁵ Nørgård, ‘Creation: The Collaboration with Ole Sarvig’, in booklet notes to Nørgård, Siddharta/For a Change, Danish National Radio Symphony Orchestra, Jan Latham-Koenig, cond., CD, Dacapo 8.224031–32 (1995), 17. Nørgård's comment echoes M.-L. von Franz's definition of individuation: ‘The actual process of individuation, the conscious coming-to-terms with one's own inner center (psychic nucleus) or Self – generally begins with a wounding of the personality and the suffering that accompanies it.’ Von Franz, ‘The Process of Individuation’, 166. Nørgård's comment about the wounding of the personality and the individuation process contradicts his own depiction of Gilgamesh, whose individuation process begins at the moment of his creation.

⁸⁶ Abusch, ‘The Development and Meaning of the Epic of Gilgamesh’, 619.

⁸⁷ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 2 letter G; Day 3 letter D.

⁸⁸ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Evening 1 letters J–K; Day 2 letters L–M.

⁸⁹ ‘The infinity series … is an early example of a generative fractal process … which reproduces and mirrors its own shapes and structures infinitely in different degrees of magnitude.’ Erik Christensen, ‘Overt and Hidden Processes in 20th Century Music’, in Process Theories: Crossdisciplinary Studies in Dynamic Categories, ed. Johanna Seibt (Dordrecht, 2003), 97–117, at 115. See also Erling Kullberg, ‘Beyond Infinity: On the Infinity Series – The DNA of Hierarchical Music’, in The Music of Per Nørgård, 71–93; Jeffrey Shallit, ‘The Mathematics of Per Nørgård's Rhythmic Infinity System’, The Fibonacci Quarterly 43/3 (2005), 262–8; Robert Walker, ‘Music and Mathematics: Of Fractal-Like Sloth Canon Number Sequences’ (2013), www.science20.com/robert_inventor/musicand_mathematics_fractallike_sloth_canon_number_sequences-113689; Yu Hin (Gary) Au, Christopher Drexler-Lemire, and Jeffrey Shallit, ‘Notes and Note Pairs in Nørgård's Infinity Series’, Journal of Mathematics and Music 11/1 (2017), 1–19.

⁹⁰ Nørgård, ‘Inside a Symphony’, Numus West 11/2 (1975), 8–9; Kullberg, ‘Beyond Infinity’, 73.

⁹¹ Kullberg, ‘Beyond Infinity’, 74–6.

⁹² Jensen, liner notes to Nørgård, Gilgamesh, EMI DMA 025–026.

⁹³ Kullberg, ‘Beyond Infinity’, 82–3. On Nørgård's interest in the ‘subharmonic’ series, see Kullberg, ‘Beyond Infinity’, 83; Jensen, Per Nørgårds Musik, 156–9. On Riemann's concept of the undertone series, see Alexander Rehding, Hugo Riemann and the Birth of Modern Musical Thought (Cambridge, 2003).

⁹⁴ Kullberg, ‘Beyond Infinity’, 80–2.

⁹⁵ Kullberg, ‘Beyond Infinity’, 83.

⁹⁶ Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård’, 150; Kullberg, ‘Beyond Infinity’, 85–90.

⁹⁷ Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård’, 149; Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård's Music Drama’, 201.

⁹⁸ Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård’, 150.

⁹⁹ Richard Strauss's Also sprach Zarathustra, op. 30 (1896), and Karlheinz Stockhausen's Stimmung (1968) provide parallels to the opening music of Gilgamesh. Nørgård uses a similar technique at the beginning of his Symphony No. 3.

¹⁰⁰ Jensen, liner notes to Nørgård, Gilgamesh, EMI DMA 025–026; Jensen, Per Nørgårds Musik, 126.

¹⁰¹ See Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård's Music Drama’, 202.

¹⁰² Edinger, Ego and Archetype, 7.

¹⁰³ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Night 4 letter Æ.

¹⁰⁴ ‘How to eat bread Enkidu knew not, how to drink ale he had never been shown.’ ‘The Standard Version’, Pennsylvania Tablet 90–1, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 14.

¹⁰⁵ Jean Gebser, The Ever-Present Origin (Athens, 1985), 69, quoted in Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård's Music Drama’, 201.

¹⁰⁶ See Marschner, ‘Das “Gilgamesh-Epos”’, 146.

¹⁰⁷ ‘The Standard Version’, Tablet VI 154–7, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 52.

¹⁰⁸ ‘The Standard Version’, Tablet VII, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 54–62.

¹⁰⁹ ‘The Standard Version’, Tablet V 176, in The Epic of Gilgamesh, 43.

¹¹⁰ For Nørgård's concept of the ‘suffering consciousness’, see Nørgård, Ambiguity. See also Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Notes from the Underground, and The Gambler, trans. Jane Kentish (New York, 1991), 34: ‘Suffering is indeed the sole cause of consciousness.’

¹¹¹ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 5 letter K.

¹¹² Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Night 6 letter B.

¹¹³ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Night 6 letters Q–A–G (pages 149a–151a of the handwritten published score). The anomalous sequencing of the rehearsal letters from Q to A is due to Nørgård's insertion of several pages of music when he revised the opera.

¹¹⁴ Topp, ‘Per Nørgård: “Gilgamesh”’, 175.

¹¹⁵ For a discussion of the lament in contemporary opera, see Yayoi Uno Everett, ‘The Pianto as a Topical Signifier in Contemporary Operas by John Adams, Thomas Adès, and Kaija Saariaho’, in The Routledge Handbook of Music Signification, ed. Esti Sheinberg and William P. Dougherty (New York, 2020), 333–44.

¹¹⁶ Brincker suggests that Nørgård's use of the chromatic infinity series in the scene symbolises Gilgamesh's memory of Enkido. See Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård's Music Drama’, 202.

¹¹⁷ Brincker, ‘Per Nørgård's Music Drama’, 206.

¹¹⁸ Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Night 7.

¹¹⁹ Jensen, Per Nørgårds Musik, 126.

¹²⁰ Guillaume Apollinaire, Calligrammes: Poems of Peace and War (1913–1916), trans. Anne Hyde Greet (Berkeley, 1980).

¹²¹ Johnson, ‘Fishing for the Notes’; Karl Kraus, The Last Days of Mankind: A Tragedy in Five Acts, trans. Patrick Healy (Amsterdam, 2016).

¹²² On Schalek, see Edward Timms, Karl Kraus, Apocalyptic Satirist: Culture and Catastrophe in Habsburg Vienna (New Haven, 1986), 328–9; Bernhard Bachinger, ‘Weibliche Kriegsberichterstattung: Alice Schalek im k.u.k. Kriegspressequartier’, in Der Krieg und die Frauen: Geschlecht und populäre Literatur im Ersten Weltkrieg, ed. Aibe-Marlene Gerdes and Michael Fischer (Münster, 2016), 167–88.

¹²³ See Rachel Fell McDermott and Jeffrey J. Kripal, eds, Encountering Kālī: In the Margins, at the Center, in the West (Berkeley, 2003).

¹²⁴ Everett, Reconfiguring Myth and Narrative in Contemporary Opera, 132, 146–7.

¹²⁵ On the life of Apollinaire, see Laurence Campa, Guillaume Apollinaire (Paris, 2013).

¹²⁶ Ivan Hansen, ‘Nørgård's Operas and Nuit des hommes (1995–96)’, booklet notes to Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, conducted by Kaare Hansen, Dacapo 8.226011 (2004), 6.

¹²⁷ Johnson, ‘Fishing for the Notes’, 1.

¹²⁸ See Campbell, 94–7, 302.

¹²⁹ ‘Lista is right in pointing out that the theme of war runs like a red thread through Marinetti's oeuvre and was a fundamental component of his world view, expressed most succinctly in In quest'anno futurista: … “War is the culminating and perfect synthesis of progress (aggressive velocity + violent simplification of effort towards wellbeing).”’ Günter Berghaus, Futurism and Politics: Between Anarchist Rebellion and Fascist Reaction, 1909–1944 (Providence, RI, 1996), 61.

¹³⁰ ‘Ne pleurez donc pas sur les horreurs de la guerre / Avant elle nous n'avions que la surface / De la terre et des mers / Après elle nous aurons les abîmes / Le sous-sol et l'espace aviatique / Maîtres du timon.’ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act II scene 2, bb. 5–21. See Apollinaire, ‘Guerre’, in Calligrammes, 160.

¹³¹ Nørgård, Ambiguity.

¹³² Ute Grundmann, ‘Schreckensklänge des Krieges’, Die Deutsche Bühne (30 June 2014), https://www.die-deutsche-buehne.de/kritiken/schreckensklaenge-des-krieges.

¹³³ Nørgård, notes for Nuit des hommes, in Ivan Hansen, ‘Nørgård's Operas and Nuit des hommes’, 5.

¹³⁴ ‘[Jacob F.] Schokking has unleashed his imagination on the typography (which also plays a major role in the work of Apollinaire). Meanwhile, the stage is bare. Now and then the singers take an object in their hands, like a gigantic nineteenth-century megaphone on wheels.’ Jacqueline Oskamp, ‘Opera: Nuit des hommes. Bommen en granaten [Bombs and Grenades]’, De Groene Amsterdammer 125/26 (30 June 2001).

¹³⁵ See http://www.musicsalesclassical.com/composer/work/21618.

¹³⁶ Wolfgang Hirsch, ‘Vor der Opernpremiere: Kriegswahn, gesteigert zu trancehafter Wollust’, Thüringische Landeszeitung (24 June 2014).

¹³⁷ See Grundmann, ‘Schreckensklänge des Krieges’; Tatjana Böhme-Mehner, ‘Der Krieg als Tummelplatz: Premiere von “Nuit des Hommes” am Landestheater’, Leipziger, Volkszeitung (3 November 2014).

¹³⁸ Michael Hall, Music Theatre in Britain, 1960–1975 (Woodbridge, 2015), 48. See also Harriet Boyd, ‘Echoes, Noise and Modernist Realism in Luigi Nono's “Intolleranza 1960”’, Cambridge Opera Journal 24/2 (2012), 177–200.

¹³⁹ See Mutsuko Motoyama, ‘The Literature and Politics of Abe Kōbō: Farewell to Communism in Suna no Onna’, Monumenta Nipponica 50/3 (1995), 305–23.

¹⁴⁰ See Peter Maxwell Davies, ‘“Taverner”: Synopsis and Documentation’, Tempo 101 (1972), 5–6.

¹⁴¹ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act I scene 11, bb. 32–8.

¹⁴² Johnson, ‘Fishing for the Notes’, 2.

¹⁴³ See Barclay Brown, ‘The Noise Instruments of Luigi Russolo’, Perspectives of New Music 20/1–2 (1981–2), 31–48. For a discussion of the occult significance of Russolo's musical experiments, see Luciano Chessa, Luigi Russolo, Futurist: Noise, Visual Arts, and the Occult (Berkeley; Los Angeles; London, 2012). For examples of Futurist musical sounds, see https://www.thereminvox.com/tag/luigi-russolo/. Note, in particular, Russolo's esempi sonori at 00:39.

¹⁴⁴ Nouritza Matossian, Xenakis (London and New York, 1986), 45.

¹⁴⁵ Ivan Hansen, ‘Nørgård's Operas and Nuit des hommes’, 4.

¹⁴⁶ ‘Après nous prendrons toutes les joies: Femmes Jeux Usines Commerce Industrie Agriculture Métal Feu Cristal Vitesse Voix Regard.’ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act II scene 1, bb. 37–8, 55–7. See Apollinaire, ‘Guerre’, in Calligrammes, 160.

¹⁴⁷ ‘L'aurore adolescente / Qui songe au soleil … L'aurore songe au soleil d'or.’ Apollinaire, ‘Aurore d'hiver’, in Oeuvres Poétiques, ed. Marcel Adéma and Michel Décaudin (Paris, 1978), 710.

¹⁴⁸ ‘L'aurore adolescente / Qui songe au soleil d'or … Un soleil d'hiver sans flammes éclatantes.’

¹⁴⁹ ‘La nuit descend sans sourire.’ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act I scene 12, bb. 22–4.

¹⁵⁰ ‘Cette nuit est si belle où la balle roucoule / Tout un fleuve d'obus sur nos têtes s’écoule / Parfois une fusée illumine la nuit.’ (This night is so lovely where the bullet coos / A whole river of shells flows down on our heads / Sometimes a rocket lights up the night.) Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act II scene 1, bb. 1–11; Act II scene 3, bb. 16–26.

¹⁵¹ In the second battle of Ypres (22 April–25 May 1915), the Germans employed poison gas on a large scale for the first time. See Ulrich Trumpener, ‘The Road to Ypres: The Beginnings of Gas Warfare in World War I’, The Journal of Modern History 47/3 (1975), 460–80; Ludwig Fritz Haber, The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War (Oxford; New York, 1986).

¹⁵² ‘Et le dieu qui sera en moi s'est incarné.’ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act I scene 4, bb. 14–19.

¹⁵³ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act I scene 11, bb. 32–8.

¹⁵⁴ ‘Viens avec moi! / jeune, jeune / viens avec moi / dans mon sexe / long plus long que le plus long serpent.’ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act II scene 2, bb. 59–76.

¹⁵⁵ Sarah Montin, ‘“To Uncreation Sunk”: “Monstered” Spaces in the Works of the War Poets’, in Monstrous Spaces, ed. Niculae Liviu Gheran and Ken Monteith (Freeland, Oxfordshire, 2013), 105–14.

¹⁵⁶ On the French offensive of September 1915, see Elizabeth Greenhalgh, The French Army and the First World War (Cambridge, 2014), 112–17.

¹⁵⁷ On the modernist interest in both African and African-American music, see Glenn Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture, and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists (Cambridge, MA, 1994).

¹⁵⁸ ‘Quasi honteuse / D’être mère d'un soleil mort-né’ [Almost ashamed / Of being mother to a stillborn sun]. Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, ‘Epilogue: L'aurore enchantée II’, b. 64.

¹⁵⁹ One of the goddess Kālī's epithets is kālarātri, the ‘night of death’. See Thomas B. Coburn, Devī-Māhātmya: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition (Delhi, 2002), 111–12.

¹⁶⁰ ‘Nuit qui criait comme une femme qui accouche.’ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act II scene 4, bb. 31–44.

¹⁶¹ Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act II scene 1, bb. 37–8, 55–7; Act II scene 2, bb. 5–33.

¹⁶² Nørgård, Gilgamesh, Day 6, III, Marsday letter F⁺⁷.

¹⁶³ Nørgård, ‘Music in Community Life: Creative Aspects’, paper presented at the Conference of the European Regional Group of the International Music Council, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1974.

¹⁶⁴ On Emmanuel Levinas's ethics of encounter with the Other, see Michael L. Morgan, ‘Introduction: Reading Levinas Today’, in The Oxford Handbook of Levinas (New York, 2019), 1–17, at 9: ‘In the hyperbolic terms that he [Levinas] comes to use in Otherwise Than Being, our very subjectivity is originally or foundationally wholly given over to each and every other person as a kind of unconditional self-sacrifice or generosity, which he calls “substitution”, “hostage”, and “obsession”.’

¹⁶⁵ See Examples 3, 4a and 4b.

¹⁶⁶ ‘I think [the universe] came into being with a single note. It was a vibration that encompassed more and more notes … Everything originates from a flash of light that spread and then the stars and planets were formed … I think there was great order at first.’ Per Nørgård, in the film A Journey in Fairy Tales and Music (TV Glad Documentary, 2010), www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRlRc1JQuNM. See also Nørgård, Ambiguity.

¹⁶⁷ Compare Nørgård, Nuit des hommes, Act I scene 10, bb. 14–19, with the Prelude of the 2005 chamber ensemble version of Will-o’-the-Wisps in Town.