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² Stenning, P. C. & Shearing, C. D., Powers of Private Security Personnel (Ottawa: Law Reform Commission of Canada, 1979)Google Scholar [hereinafter Powers of Private Security].

³ If there is one ‘truism’ about private security, it is that the size of this sector has been expanding at a considerable rate when compared to public police services in North America. In the United States, the private security guardforce overtook the public police around 1977. In 1990, private security agents outnumbered the public police by about three to one in the U. S. A., See Cunningham, W. C., Strauchs, J. J. & Van Meter, C.W., Private Security Trends 1970–2000: The Hallcrest II (MacLean, VA: Hallcrest Systems Inc., 1990).Google Scholar In Canada, there has also been a steady growth in private policing since the end of the Second World War. Current interpolations also suggest that private security officers outnumber the public police by over a three to one ratio in Canada. See Shearing, C. D., Farnell, M. P. & Stenning, P. C., Contract Security in Ontario (Toronto: Centre of Criminology, 1980)Google Scholar, Leclair, C. & Long, S., The Canadian Security Sector: An Overview, Report (Toronto: Industrial Adjustment Committee on the Security Sector, 1996).Google Scholar

⁴ The term ‘police’ has been linked, historically, to the very idea of the city-state in Ancient Greece and later with the notion of safety and security. See also Shearing, C. D., “The Relations Between Public and Private Policing” in Tonry, M. & Morris, N., eds., Modern Policing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) at 219Google Scholar [hereinafter “The Relations Between”].

⁵ Couch, S. R., “Selling and Reclaiming State Sovereignty: The Case of the Coal and Iron Police” (1981) 10 Insurgent Sociologist 1Google Scholar; Weiss, R., “The Emergence and Transformation of Private Detective Industrial Policing in the United States, 1850–1940” (1978) 9 Crime & Social Justice 35.Google Scholar

⁶ Cooper, L. et al. The Iron Fist and the Velvet Glove (Berkeley: Center for Research on Criminal Justice, 1975).Google Scholar

⁷ See the critical history of the R.C.M.P. by Brown, L. & Brown, C., An Unauthorized History of the RCMP (Toronto: James Lorimer and Company, 1978).Google Scholar

⁸ South, N., Policing for Profit (London: Sage, 1988).Google Scholar

⁹ Spitzer, S. & Scull, A. T., “Privatization and Capitalist Development” 25 Social Problems 18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Johnston, L., The Rebirth of Private Policing (London: Routledge, 1992) at 210.Google Scholar

¹¹ Shearing, C. D., “Policing: Relationships between Public and Private” in Findlay, M. & Ugljesa, Z., eds., Alternative Policing Styles: Cross-Cultural Perspectives (Boston: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers; UNICRI, 1993) 203 at 225.Google ScholarRigakos, G. S., “Hyperpanoptics as Commodity: The Case of the Parapolice” (1999) 24 Can. J. of Soc. 381CrossRefGoogle Scholar [hereinafter “Hyperpanoptics as Commodity”].

¹² Shearing, C. D. & Stenning, P. C., “‘Say Cheese:’; The Disney Order that is not so Mickey Mouse” in Shearing, C. D. & Stenning, P. C., eds., Private Policing (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987) at 317.Google Scholar

¹³ Snowflakes are paper notices placed by security agents in areas where a breach of security has occurred. Workers are thus trained to be vigilant (i.e. responsible) against opportunities for theft of company property. For an intriguing discussion of these corporate/actuarial practices see Shearing, C. D. & Stenning, P. C., “Snowflakes or Good Pinches? – Private Security's Contribution to Modern Policing” in Donelan, R., ed., Maintenance of Order in Society (Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services, 1982) at 96.Google Scholar For a critique of the conceptual dichotomization of loss and crime prevention in the public/private policing literature see Rigakos, G. S. “From ‘Snowflakes’ to Good Pinches: The Alternating Logics of Policing Late Modern Risk Markets” (Washington, D.C.: Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology Conference, 11 Nov. 1998) [unpublished].Google Scholar

¹⁴ See also Ericson, R. V. & Haggerty, K. D., Policing the Risk Society (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997)Google Scholar for a description of how risk systems come to dominate the mobilizations of the public police in Canada.

¹⁵ Rose, N. & Miller, P., “Political Power Beyond the State: Problematics of Government” (1992) 43 Brit. J. of Soc. 173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarRose, N., “The Death of the Social? Re-figuring the Territory of Government” (1996) 25 Economy & Society 327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁶ O'Malley, P., “Legal Networks and Domestic Security” (1991) 11 Studies in Law, Politic and Society 171 at 186.Google Scholar

¹⁷ “The Relations Between”, supra note 4 at 425.

¹⁸ Powers of Private Security, supra note 2.

¹⁹ See e.g. R. v. Sawler (1991), 104 N.S.R. (2d) 408 (N.S.S.C., A.D.) [hereinafter Sawler]; R. v. Tyab [1994] B.C.W.L.D. 2633 (B.C.C.A) [hereinafter Tyab]; Re Drug Trading & Druggists (1988), 32 L.A.C. (3d) 356 [hereinafter Re Drug Trading].

²⁰ Shearing, C. D. & Stenning, P. C., “Private security: Implications for Social Control” (1983) 30 Social Problems 498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²¹ Shearing, C. D., “The Changing Face of the Governance of Security and Justice” Centre of Criminology, University of Toronto 1998) [unpublished].Google Scholar

²² Spitzer, S., ‘The Political Economy of Policing” in Greenberg, D. F., ed., Crime and Capitalism: Readings in Marxist Criminology (Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1981) 314.Google Scholar

²³ Rigakos, G. S., The New Parapolice: Risk Markets and Commodified Social Control (Ph. D. Dissertation, York University 1998)Google Scholar [unpublished] [hereinafter The New Parapolice].

²⁴ Poster, M., The Mode of Information (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).Google Scholar

²³ Power of Private Security, supra note 2 at 17.

²⁶ Seamayne (1604) 5 Coke 91; 77 E.R. 194 at 195.

²⁷ We will discuss the specific sections of provincial trespass Acts that make this possible in a later section of this paper.

²⁸ Anand, R., Task Force on the Law Concerning Trespass to Publicly-Used Property as it Affects Youth and Minorities (Toronto: Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General, 1987)Google Scholar [hereinafter Task Force].

²⁹ R.S.O. 1990, c. T-21.

³⁰ See generally “Hyperpanoptics as Commodity”, supra note 11.

³¹ R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46 [heinafter Criminal Code].

³² See R. v. Orban (1972), 8 C.C.C. (2d) 518 at 520 (Sask. Q.B.).

³³ See Dendekker v. F.W. Woolworth Co., [1975] 3 W.W.R. 429 at 434 (Alta. S.C.) [hereinafter Dendekker].

³⁴ R. v. Gonzalez, [1996] O.J. No. 761 (QL) [hereinafter Gonzalez].

³⁵ R. v. McCarthy (1974), 6 C.C.C. (2d) 472 at 477 (N.S. Co. Ct.) [hereinafter McCarthy].

³⁶ Gonzalez, supra note 34.

³⁷ R. v. Biron (1975), 4 N.R. 45 [hereinafter Biron].

³⁸ Ibid. at 53.

³⁹ Karogiannis v. Poulus (1976), 72 D.L.R. (3d) 253 at 255 (B.C.S.C.) [hereinafter Karogiannis]. See also Mudry v. R.J. Hutchinson Ltd (1981), 24 Man. R (2d) 203 at 205 (Man. Q.B.).

⁴⁰ Kendall v. Gambles Canada [1981] 4 W.W.R. 718 at 736 (Sask. Q.B.)[hereinafter Kendall].

⁴¹ In R. v. Huff (1979), 50 C.C.C. (2d) 324 at 328, the Alberta Court of Appeal decided that the ‘finds committing an indictable offence’ requirement could be satisfied if one found another committing a ‘hybrid’ offence, an offence punishable by indictment or by summary conviction on election by the Crown.

⁴² The New Parapolice, supra note 23 at 174–175.

⁴³ Lebrun v. High Low Food (1968), 69 D.L.R. (2d) 433 at 440 (B.C.S.C.) [hereinafter Lebrun].

⁴⁴ Campbell v. S.S. Kresge Co. (1976), 74 D.L.R. (3d) 717 (N.S.S.C., T.D.) [hereinafter Campbell].

⁴⁵ R. v. Dean, [1966] 3 C.C.C. 228 at 231.

⁴⁶ Campbell, supra note 44 at 719. See also Chaytor. v. London, New York and Paris Association of Fashion (1961), 30 D.L.R. 527 at 536 (Nfld. S.C.) [hereinafter Chaytor].

⁴⁷ Sinclair v. Woodward's Store, [1942] 2 D.L.R. 395 at 397 (B.C.S.C).

⁴⁸ Kovacs v. Ontario Jockey Club (1995), 126 D.L.R. (4th) 576 at 586 (Ont. Ct. (Gen. Div.)) [hereinafter Kovacs].

⁴⁹ The New Parapolice, supra note 23.

⁵⁰ Ibid. at 127.

⁵¹ Supra note 29.

⁵² Saskatchewan does not have a trespass act. Arrangements under the Co-operative Security Program (a Regina Police Service initiative) provide that if a security officer asks a trespasser to leave and if he/she resists with force, the security officer arrests for assault. If the trespasser refuses to leave but remains peaceful, the police are called and upon further refusal the trespasser is arrested for obstruction.

⁵³ Supra note 29 s. 2(l)(a)(ii); Protection of Property Act, R.S.N.S. 1989, c. 363, s. 3(l)(f); Trespass to Property Act, R.S.P.E.I. 1988, c. T-6, s. 2(l)(f).

⁵⁴ Protection of Property Act, ibid at s. 7(b); Trespass to Property Act, Ibid. at s. 6(b).

⁵⁵ In fact, we searched both for any regulatory definitions as well as any definitions in the Acts. We then reviewed cases citing sections in the Acts dealing with prohibited activity and perused the definition sections of the Interpretation Act and the Criminal Code of Canada. We then searched the Canadian Abridgement Case Digest on line as well as the Canadian Encyclopaedic Digest (Ontario). Failing there, we decided to look up the phrases in Words and Phrases and Black's Law Dictionary, as well as re-examining extant cases on Quick Law. We could find no definition.

⁵⁶ This often includes oral declaration, or written notification.

⁵⁷ Supra note 29.

⁵⁸ Much to the consternation of Raj Anand and his Task Force, supra note 28 at iii.

⁵⁹ Supra note 29 at s. 2(1)(b).

⁶⁰ See Powers of Private Security, supra note 2 at 62–63, especially Dillon v. O'Brien (1887) 17 Cox C.C. 245 at 249–50, and Reynen v. Antonenko (1975) 30 C.R.N.S. 135. For post-Constitution Act rulings, see also Hoskins, F. P., “Search and Seizure” in Pink, J. E. & Perrier, D. C., eds., From Crime to Punishment (Scarborough: Carswell, 1997) 303Google Scholar, and the case of Cloutier v. Langlois (1990), 53 C.C.C. (3d) 257 S.C.C. where the court spells out that searches may be conducted on persons incidental to arrest in order to secure objects that may be used in evidence, weapons that may be a threat to public safety, or objects that may aid in escape.

⁶¹ Cannon v. Hudson's Bay, [1939] 4 D.L.R. 465 (B.C.S.C).

⁶² Conn v. Spencer, [1930] 1 D.L.R. 805 at 808 (B.C.S.C).

⁶³ Sinclair, supra note 47 at 397.

⁶⁴ Kovacs, supra note 48 at 587.

⁶⁵ Chaytor, supra note 46 at 536. See also Campbell, supra note 44 at 719. In R. v. Therens (1985), 18 C.C.C. (3d) 481 [hereinafter Therens], the Supreme Court of Canada affirmed a person could be subjected to ‘psychological control’ sufficient to constitute detention.

⁶⁶ See Dendekker, supra note 33 at 434, Hayward v. Woolworth. (1978), 98 D.L.R. 474 at 476 (Ont. H.C.J.) [hereinafter Hayward]; Kendall, supra note 40 at 727; Kovacs, supra note 48 at 585.

⁶⁷ In Newhook v. K-Mart (1991), 363 A.P.R. 102 at 115–116 [hereinafter Newhook], the Newfoundland Supreme Court (T.D.) held that the defence against a claim of false imprisonment failed because the defendants failed to establish an intention on the part of the arrestee to defraud. Thus their arrest was not justified. Here the Court seems to be requiring the arresting citizen to determine the intention or mental guilt of the arrestee as part of the ‘finds committing’ requirement. By contrast, in Banerjee v. K-Mart. (1983), 127 A.P.R. 252 at 255 the Newfoundland District Court maintained that the influence of s. 25(l)(a) on the ‘finds committing’ requirement was to require only that the defendant[s] make out a prima facie case; that is, it seems, they need only prove the act of theft, not the guilty intent of the person arrested for the offence. This also seems to be part of the reasoning in the decision by the Nova Scotia County in McCarthy, supra note 35. The Newfoundland Court of Appeal in Sears Canada v. Smart (1987) 36 D.L.R. (4^th) 756 at 761 [hereinafter Sears Canada], seemed to reject the interpretation of s. 25 present in Banerjee.

⁶⁸ Otto & Otto v. Wallace & Meyers [1988] 2 W.W.R. 728 (Alta. Q.B.).

⁶⁹ Hayward, supra note 66 at 355. See also Kovacs, supra note 48 at 590.

⁷⁰ See Kendall, supra note 40 at 727, Newhook, supra note 67 at 119.

⁷¹ Dandurand v. Pier 1 Imports (Canada) (1986), 55 O.R. (2d) 329. At p. 330, the Court of Appeal, in an oral judgment delivered by Lacourciere J.A., maintained “A private person does not have the same liberty as a peace officer to act on reasonable and probable grounds that an offence has been committed.”

⁷² This section of the Criminal Code, along with s. 494(1)(b) have been re-enacted so that the words “and probable” immediately preceding the word “grounds” are now deleted.

⁷³ Banyasz v. K-Mart Canada Ltd. (1986), 33 D.L.R. 474 at 476.

⁷⁴ Hayward, supra note 66 at 354.

⁷⁵ Kovacs, supra note 48 at 590.

⁷⁶ Kendall, supra note 40 at 736.

⁷⁷ Karogiannis, supra note 39 at 256.

⁷⁸ Dendekker, supra note 33.

⁷⁹ Lebrun, supra note 43.

⁸⁰ McCarthy, supra note 35 at 477.

⁸¹ Kovacs, supra note 48 at 591.

⁸² Hayward, supra note 66 at 354.

⁸³ Sears Canada, supra note 67 at 760.

⁸⁴ Ibid. at 759–760. See also Briggs v. Laviolette (1994), 21 C.C.L.T. (2d) 105 at 111.

⁸⁵ Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part 1 of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Sechedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11 [hereinafter Charter].

⁸⁶ McKinney v. University of Guelph, [1990] 3 S.C.R. 229 at 266 [hereinafter McKinney].

⁸⁷ Eldridge v. British Colombia (A.G.), [1997] 3 S.C.R. 624 at 660 [hereinafter McKinney].

⁸⁸ R. v. Lerke (1986), 24 C.C.C. (3d) 129 at 135 [hereinafter Lerke].

⁸⁹ The constitutional questions surrounding the inclusion of evidence obtained by parapolicing organisations under contract with public housing, port, or parks authorities (or other public places) are not trivial. The expansion of contracted private policing firms is central to the organisation of securing places and spaces in late modernity.

⁹⁰ Lerke, supra note 88 at 135–136.

⁹¹ R. v. Wilson (1994), 29 C.R. (4th) 302 at 309 [hereinafter Wilson].

⁹² R. v. Dean (1991), 5 C.R. (4th) 176.

⁹³ Ibid. at 181.

⁹⁴ Ibid. at 183.

⁹⁵ Wilson, supra note 91.

⁹⁶ Ibid. at 313.

⁹⁷ Ibid. at 313.

⁹⁸ Ibid. at 314.

⁹⁹ See Sawler, supra note 19, and Tyab, supra note 19.

¹⁰⁰ R. v. Shafie (1989), 47 C.C.C. (3d) 27 (Ont. C.A.) [hereinafter Shafie].

¹⁰¹ Sawler, supra note 19 at 413.

¹⁰² Tyab, supra note 19.

¹⁰³ Shafie, supra note 100 at 28–29.

¹⁰⁴ Therens, supra note 65. At page 505, the Supreme Court maintained that detention could occur as the result of psychological coercion where “the person concerned submits or acquiesces in the deprivation of liberty and reasonably believes that the choice to do otherwise does not exist.”

¹⁰³ Shafie, supra note 100 at 30.

¹⁰⁶ Therens, supra note 65 at 504.

¹⁰⁷ Shafie, supra note 100 at 32.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid. at 34. It would be interesting to know whether the Court intended the term ‘non-governmental persons' to be extended to ‘corporate’ persons.

¹⁰⁹ R. v. J.C., [1994] B.C.J. No.1861 (QL).

¹¹⁰ Shafie, supra note 100 at 34.

¹¹¹ Lerke, supra note 88.

¹¹² McKinney, supra note 86.

¹¹³ Eldridge, supra note 87.

¹¹⁴ R. v. Paglialunga, [1995] O.J. No. 512 (QL) [hereinafter Paglialunga].

¹¹⁵ R. v. Brandt (1991), 118 A.R. 8.

¹¹⁶ R. v. Voege (1997), 31 V.M.R. (3d) 293, 48 C.R.R. (2d) 344 (Ont. Gen. Div.) at 10.

¹¹⁷ Ibid.

¹¹⁸ R. v. Miskuski, [1993] A.P.W.L.D. (Alta. Q. B.).

¹¹⁹ R.S.C. 1985 (1st Supp.), c. 33.

¹²⁰ Lerke, supra note 88 at 139.

¹²¹ Ibid.

¹²² Ibid. at 139.

¹²³ Ibid. at 140.

¹²⁴ R.S.A. 1980, c. P-6, s. 4.

¹²⁵ Lerke, supra note 88 at 141.

¹²⁶ Ibid.

¹²⁷ R. v. Kozuchar-Thibault, [1994] M. J. No. 449 (QL).

¹²⁸ R. v. MacKenzie (1995), 392 A.P.R. 345 at 369.

¹²⁹ Ibid. at 370.

¹³⁰ R. v. Sandhu, [1992] B.C.W.L.D. 1342 (B.C.S.C), Aff'd (1993), 82 C.C.C. (3d) 236, 28 B.C.A.C. 203 (B.C.C.A.), Leave to appeal to S.C.C. refused (1993), 84 C.C.C (3d) (Note), 45 B.C.A.C. 238 (Note).

¹³¹ R. v. Williams (1994), 367 A.P.R. 8 (N.S.S.C.) [hereinafter Williams].

¹³² Ibid., at 17–18.

¹³³ R. v. Colarusso (1994), 87 C.C.C. (3d) 193 at 222 [hereinafter Colarusso]. At p. 222, the Court wrote “the criminal law enforcement arm of the state cannot rely on the seizure by the coroner to circumvent the guarantees of Hunter, supra, as any seizure by the coroner pursuant to s. 16(2) [Coroners Act (Ont.)] is valid for non-criminal purposes only.” One might extend this logic to reason that searches by private actors be valid for private (e.g., non-criminal) purposes only.

¹³⁴ Sawler, supra note 19.

¹³⁵ See Re Drug Trading., supra note 19.

¹³⁶ R. v. Fegan (1993), 80 C.C.C. (3d) 356 at 365 [hereinafter Fegan].

¹³⁷ R. v. Finch (1995), 93 C.C.C. (3d) 185 at 190–191 [hereinafter Finch].

¹³⁸ Ibid. at 191.

¹³⁹ R. v. Caucci (1995), 43 C.R. (4th) 403 at 407–408.

¹⁴⁰ R. v. Meyers (1987), 52 Alta. L.R. (2d) 156 at 165 [hereinafter Meyers].

¹⁴¹ Ibid. at 161.

¹⁴² Ibid. at 166.

¹⁴³ Ibid. at 164–165.

¹⁴⁴ Ibid. at 165.

¹⁴⁵ Colarusso, supra note 133.

¹⁴⁶ Williams, supra note 131.

¹⁴⁷ Fegan, supra note 136.

¹⁴⁸ Finch, supra note 137

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¹⁵⁰ R.S.O. 1990, c. P-15. Competitive bidding was made possible by Ontario's Bill 105, which received royal ascent in June, 1997. Section 5 of the Act empowers municipal councils to “adopt a different method of providing police services.”

¹⁵¹ Normandeau, A. & Leighton, B., A Vision for the Future of Policing in Canada: Police-Challenge 2000 (Ottawa: Solicitor General, 1990) at 69.Google Scholar