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2. Versions of this interpretation can be found in, for example, Holborn, Hajo, A History of Modem Germany, 1840–1945 (New York, 1969), 259–61Google Scholar; Eyck, Erich, Bismarck and the German Empire (New York, 1964), 151–52, 204–6Google Scholar; Taylor, A. J. P., Bismarck: the Man and the Statesman (New York, 1955), 149–50Google Scholar; Rosenberg, Arthur, Imperial Germany: the Birth of the German Republic 1871–1918 (Boston, 1967), 10–11.Google Scholar

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5. Some of the many comparative studies are: Allardt, Erik and Littunen, Yrjö, eds., Cleavages, Ideologies and Party Systems (Helsinki, 1964)Google Scholar; Dahl, Robert A., ed., Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven, 1966)Google Scholar; Lehmbruch, Gerhard, Proporz-demokratie: Politisches System und politische Kultur in der Schweiz und in Österreich (Tübingen, 1967)Google Scholar; Lipset, Seymour M. and Rokkan, Stein, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York, 1968)Google Scholar; Lorwin, Val R., “Segmented Pluralism: Ideological Cleavages and Political Cohesion in the Smaller European Democracies,” Comparative Politics 3 (01 1971)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Daalder, Hans, “On Building Consociational Nations: The Case of the Netherlands and Switzerland,” International Social Science Journal 23 (1971)Google Scholar; Nordlinger, Eric A., Conflict Resolution in Divided Societies (Cambridge, Mass., 1972)Google Scholar; Daalder, Hans, “The Consociational Democracy Theme,” World Politics 26 (1974)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Lawson, Kay, ed., Political Parties and Linkage: A Comparative Perspective (New Haven, 1980).Google Scholar For the Netherlands alone, the seminal work is Lijphart, Arend, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands (Berkeley, 1975)Google Scholar; also Dutter, Lee E., “The Netherlands as a Plural Society,” Comparative Political Studies 10 (01 1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Kieve, Ronald A., “Pillars of Sand: A Marxist Critique of Consociational Democracy in the Netherlands,” Comparative Politics 13 (04 1981).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For Switzerland alone: Lipson, Leslie, “Le système des partis politiques en Suisse,” Revue Française de Science Politique 6 (10–12 1956)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Keech, William R., “Linguistic Diversity and Political Conflict: Some Observations Based on Four Swiss Cantons,” Comparative Politics 4 (04 1972)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Steiner, Jürg, Amicable Agreement versus Majority Rule: Conflict Resolution in Switzerland (Chapel Hill, 1974)Google Scholar; Bohn, David Earle, “Consociational Democracy and the Case of Switzerland,” Journal of Politics 42 (02 1980)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Schmid, Carol L., Conflict and Consensus in Switzerland (Berkeley, 1981).Google Scholar

6. Schubert, Glendon, “Subcultural Effects on Judicial Behavior: A Comparative Analysis,” Journal of Politics 42 (11 1980).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a witty deflation of this kind of approach, see Barry, Brian, “Political Accommodation and Consociational Democracy,” British Journal of Political Science 5 (10 1975).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7. Hans Daalder, “The Netherlands: Opposition in a Segmented Society,” in Dahl, 199.

8. These “critical junctures” are cited in Rokkan, Stein, “The Structuring of Mass Politics in the Smaller European Democracies: A Developmental Typology,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 10 (01 1968): 198–99, but without reference to Germany.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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10. Lijphart, 81. Kossmann, 161.

11. Bornwasser, J. A., “Thorbecke and the Churches,” Acta Historiae Neerlandicae 7 (1974): 147–52.Google Scholar

12. Verkade, William, Democratic Parties in the Low Countries and Germany (Leiden, 1965), 40–42.Google Scholarvan der Plas, Michael and Suer, Henk, Those Dutch Catholics (London, 1967), 37.Google ScholarRogier, Ludovicus-Jacobus and Brachin, P., Histoire du Catholicisme Hollandais depuis le XVI Siècle (Paris, 1974), 85–95Google Scholar. Rogier has written several important works in Dutch on the history of Dutch Catholics.

13. Biaudet, Jean-Charles, “Der modernen Schweizentgegen,” in Handbuch der Schweizer Geschichte, 2 (Zurich, 1977): 921–57Google Scholar. The names of Swiss cantons will be spelled here according to the majority language in those cantons, except in the case of the usually anglicized Geneva.

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15. Bucher, Erwin, Die Geschichte des Sonderbunds (Zurich, 1966), 525.Google ScholarGruner, E. and Haeberli, Wilfred, Werden und Wachsen des Bundesstaates 1815–1945 (Aarau, 1962), 47.Google Scholar

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17. von Greyarz, Hans, “Der Bundesstaat seit 1848,” in Handbuch, 2:1067–72.Google Scholar It is interesting to learn that the head of the German Old Catholic Church, Bishop Joseph Hubert Reinkens, who instated the Swiss Christ-Catholic clergy, had been consecrated by a bishop belonging to a small Dutch Old Catholic sect dating from Jansenist times in the early eighteenth century. Rogier and Brachin, 25.

18. Becker, Winfried, “Der Kulturkampfals Europäisches und als deutsches Phänomen,” Historisches Jahrbuch 101 (1981): 422–46.Google Scholar

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20. Görres, Joseph, “Die Moral aus den Vorgängen in der Schweiz,” (1845), Gesammelte Schriften, 6 (Munich, 1859): 257–76Google Scholar. Bloody armed clashes were frequent in local Swiss politics in the 1830s and 1840s, and they occasionally spilled over cantonal boundaries. In the most important of these incidents over a hundred people were killed in the spring of 1845 when a guerilla army of 3,500 Radicals from Aargau unsuccessfully invaded Luzern. See Hughes, Christopher, “Violence and Non-violence in Swiss Constitutional Amendment” in Junker, Beat, Gilg, Peter, and Reich, Richard, eds., Geschichte und politische Wissenschaft (Bern, 1975), 187–92. Bucher, 14–16Google Scholar. Church, Clive H., Europe in 1830: Revolution and Political Change (London, 1983), 57–69Google Scholar.

21. “In the highlands the first shot was fired—In the highlands, against the priests!” von Freiligrath, Ferdinand, Werke, vol. 1 (Hildesheim, 1974).Google Scholar Also cited in Müller, Harald, “Der Widerhall auf den Schweizer Sonderbundskrieg 1847 in den Staaten des Deutschen Bundes,” Jahrbuch für Geschichte 7 (1972): 211–41.Google Scholar

22. Sheehan, 152.

23. Stenographische Berichte über die Verhandlungen des deutschen Reichstages 8 (04 3, 1871): 131.Google Scholar See also Windell, George C., Catholics and German Unity 1866–1871 (Minneapolis, 1954).Google Scholar

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25. See Evans, Ellen L., The German Center Party 1870–1933 (Carbondale, III., 1981), 97–104.Google Scholar

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27. Bachem, Karl, Vorgeschichte, Geschichte und Politik der deutschen Zentrumspartei 1815–1914 (Cologne, 1927–1932) 3:129–31.Google Scholar

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34. The “magic formula” was changed several more times after 1919. Since 1959 it has been 2–2–2–1: two Radicals, two Catholic Conservatives, two Social Democrats, and one representative from the Farmers' Party (Bauem-Gewerbe-Bürger Partei).

35. The three schools of thought are described in Altermatt, , Der Weg der schweizer Katholiken ins Ghetto (Zurich, 1972), 97–107, 356–61.Google Scholar

36. Ibid., 194–95.

37. Ibid., 292.

38. Ibid., 403.

39. “Even today all Dutch people know that a ‘Christian’ school or a ‘Christian’ union is a Calvinist school, a Calvinist union.” Rogier and Brachin, 95.

40. van der Dunk, Herman, “Conservatism in the Netherlands,” Journal of Contemporary History 13 (10 1978): 741–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Daalder in Dahl, 201.

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43. Daalder in Dahl, 203.

44. Bakvis, Herman, Catholic Power in the Netherlands (Kingston and Montreal, 1981), 69Google Scholar. Bakvis provides an excellent account of contemporary political Catholicism in the Netherlands.

45. Cited in Rogier and Brachin, 112, and in Coleman, John A., The Evolution of Dutch Catholicism 1958–1974 (Berkeley, 1978), 41Google Scholar.

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53. For a brief overview of the German Christian Trade Unions and for further references see Evans, 178–94, 249–53.

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58. Windmuller, 26–29. The syndicalist and Socialist unions accused the confessional unions of acting as strikebreakers in 1903. Similar accusations were made against the German Christian unions about a miners' strike in 1912, but apparently without foundation. Deuerlein, Ernst, “Der Gewerkschaftsstreit,” Theologische Quartalschrift 139 (1969): 65–66Google Scholar.

59. Bakvis, 122–26. Windmuller, 79. The percentage of Dutch workers organized in the Catholic unions has increased significantly since World War II.

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61. Ibid., 262, 323–26. Greyerz, 1133–42.

62. Luck, J. Murray, ed., Modern Switzerland (Palo Alto, Cal., 1978), 175.Google Scholar

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69. The subjects of recent research in Gall, Blackbourn, and Möckl respectively.