Hostname: page-component-8678677fb7-6w47d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-10-03T15:56:54.824Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Raw Materials Used in Traditional Pottery from Northern Morocco: Possible Alternative Material for a Sustainable Future in the Fran Ali Area

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2024

Fatima Hilali Open the ORCID record for Fatima Hilali [Opens in a new window] ,
Younes El Kharim ,
Hasnaa Hilali ,
Ali Bounab ,
Hicham El Idrissi ,
Khalid Draoui ,
Mustapha El Hadri  and
Mohamed Ahniche
Fatima Hilali*
Affiliation:
GERN, FS, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco
Younes El Kharim
Affiliation:
GERN, FS, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco
Hasnaa Hilali
Affiliation:
GERN, FS, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco
Ali Bounab
Affiliation:
GERN, FS, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco
Hicham El Idrissi
Affiliation:
Laboratory de Georessources, Géoenvironment et Génie Civil (L3G), Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Cadi Ayyad University, P.O. Box 549, Marrakech, Morocco
Khalid Draoui
Affiliation:
IMED-LAB, FS, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, 93002, Tetouan, Morocco
Mustapha El Hadri
Affiliation:
EPMC, FS, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco
Mohamed Ahniche
Affiliation:
GEOTECHMED, Lot Prévention 256, Tetouan, Morocco
*
e-mail: hilali.fatima22@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The colluvium and saprolite deposits in the Fran Ali area (Oued Laou, northern Morocco) constitute the main source of raw materials used in traditional pottery. These materials are becoming scarce, however, so alternative materials with the same characteristics are needed; this would ensure the sustainability of pottery activities in the area. The objective of the present study was to examine ten representative samples of clayey materials extracted from the Fran Ali area, i.e. the Ikhadimene, Dar Haddoune, Ihadounene, Aqqbat Ajjoua, and Isalahene sites. The geological materials consist mainly of grayish to brownish phyllites, thin layers of yellowish clay, thicker intervals of reddish-yellow soils ranging in depth from 1 to 4 m, and reddish colluvium soils. The physical properties of these materials were determined using semi-wet sieving and Atterberg limit tests, while chemical, mineralogical, and thermal properties were obtained from the methylene blue test (MBT), the calcimetry test, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric and differential thermal (TGA/DTGA) analysis. The results suggest that the soils contain 21–35% clay, 28–34% silt, and 37–52% sand. They are moderately plastic, with methylene blue adsorption capacities ranging from 3 to 7% and minimal CaCO3 carbonate contents (1–4%). Samples are dominated by SiO2 (51–57%), Al2O3 (17–21%), and Fe2O3 (8–10%). Mineralogically, they are composed of illite (19–27%), chlorite (0–22%), kaolinite (5–9%), and quartz (29–32%). Thermal analysis showed a relatively large mass loss of ~10%. The samples are deemed to be moderately plastic. The results indicate that this raw material is acceptable for pottery fabrication, given the small proportion of irregular interlayer content and its average geotechnical properties. In addition, extraction of the colluvium material is not sustainable because of the relative scarcity of the material. Given the mineralogical similarity between the weathered layers (colluvium) and their parent rock (shales), the present results suggest that the latter is a suitable alternative to the former.

Keywords

Chemical characterizationClayey soilGeotechnical characterizationOued LaouShalesTraditional pottery

Information

Type
Original Paper
Information
Clays and Clay Minerals , Volume 71 , Issue 5 , October 2023 , pp. 616 - 636
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The Clay Minerals Society 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

Footnotes

Associate Editor: Chun-Hui Zhou

References

Abatalib, A., Gouzouli, N., Moussa, R., Saddiqi, O.. (2014). Caractérisation des schistes sombres du bassin de Tafilalet. International Journal of Innovation and Scientific Research. 9, 386–398.Google Scholar
Aguzzi, C., Cerezo, P., Viseras, C., Caramella, C.. (2007). Use of clays as drug delivery systems: possibilities and limitations. Applied Clay Science. 36, (1–3), 22–36, 10.1016/j.clay.2006.06.015.10.1016/j.clay.2006.06.015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Assifaoui, A. (2002). Etude de la stabilité de barbotines à base d'argiles locales: application aux formulations céramiques industrielles. [3ème cycle Université Hassan II Aïn-Chock , Faculté des Sciences de Casablanca, Maroc].Google Scholar
Baccour, H., Medhioub, M., Jamoussi, F., Mhiri, T.. (2009). Influence of firing temperature on the ceramic properties of Triassic clays from Tunisia. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 209, (6), 2812–2817, 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.06.055.10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.06.055CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrios Neira, J., Martín de la Cruz, J. C., Montealegre Contreras, L. (2012). Estudio de materiales usados en la fabricacion de las ceramicas de Fran Ali (Oued Laou, Marruecos). Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Cerámica y Vidrio, 51(4), 222–230. https://doi.org/10.3989/cyv.322012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bazzana, A., & Montmessin, Y. (1995). Quelques aspects de la céramique médiévale du Maroc du Nord. Actes du 5éme colloque sur la céramique médiévale.Google Scholar
Beaudet, G., Maurer, G., Ruellan, A.. (1967). Le quaternaire marocain. observations et hypothèses nouvelles. Revue de Géographie Physique et de Géologie Dynamique. 9, 269–309.Google Scholar
Bernal-Casasola, D., Bustamante-Álvarez, M., Díaz, J.J., López-Sáez, J.A., Gutiérrez-Rodríguez, M., Vargas Girón, J.M., Portillo-Sotelo, J.L., Pascual Sánchez, MÁ, Moujoud, T.. (2021). Milling cereals/legumes and stamping bread in Mauretanian Tamuda (Morocco): an interdisciplinary study. African Archaeological Review. 38, 175–209, 10.1007/s10437-020-09413-7.10.1007/s10437-020-09413-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biscaye, P.E.. (1965). Mineralogy and sedimentation of recent deep-sea clay in the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas and oceans. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 76, (7), 803–832, 10.1130/0016-7606(1965)76[803:MASORD]2.0.CO;2.10.1130/0016-7606(1965)76[803:MASORD]2.0.CO;2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bockheim, J.G., Gennadiyev, A.N., Hammer, R.D., Tandarich, J.P.. (2005). Historical development of key concepts in pedology. Geoderma. 124, (1–2), 23–36, 10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.03.004.10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.03.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bounab, A., El Kharim, Y., El Hamdouni, R., Hlila, R.. (2021). A multidisciplinary approach to study slope instability in the Alboran Sea shoreline: study of the tamegaret deep-seated slow-moving landslide in northern Morocco. Journal of African Earth Sciences. 184, 104–345, 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2021.104345.10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2021.104345CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buol, S.W., Southard, R.J., Graham, R.C., McDaniel, P.A.. (2011). Soil genesis and classification. John Wiley & Sons, 10.1002/9780470960622.10.1002/9780470960622CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Candy, I., Black, S.. (2009). The timing of quaternary calcrete development in semi-arid Southeast Spain: investigating the role of climate on calcrete genesis. Sedimentary Geology. 218, (1–4), 6–15, 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.03.005.10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.03.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casagrande, A.. (1947). Classification and identification of soils. Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers. 113, 901–930, 10.1061/TACEAT.0006109.10.1061/TACEAT.0006109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chalouan, A., Michard, A.. (1985). Age anté-Viséen de la phase varisque paroxysmale dans les nappes ghomarides du Rit interne (Maroc). Sciences Géologiques, Bulletins Et Mémoires. 38, (2), 165–174, 10.3406/sgeol.1985.1704.10.3406/sgeol.1985.1704CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chalouan, A., Michard, A.. (1990). The Ghomarides nappes, Rif coastal range, Morocco: A Variscan chip in the Alpine belt. Tectonics. 9, (6), 1565–1583, 10.1029/TC009i006p01565.10.1029/TC009i006p01565CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ciullo, P.A.. (1996). Industrial minerals and their uses: a handbook and formulary. William Andrew.Google Scholar
Çolak, M., Maggetti, M., Galetti, G.. (2006). Golden mica cooking pottery from Gökeyüp (Manisa), Turkey. Geological Society. 257, (1), 141–150, 10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.257.01.11.10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.257.01.11CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, H., Johnson, P., Matti, J., Zemmels, I.. (1975). IV. methods of sample preparation, and X-ray diffraction data analysis, X-ray mineralogy laboratory. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. 25, 999–1007.Google Scholar
Cultrone, G., Rodriguez-Navarro, C., Sebastian, E., Cazalla, O., De La Torre, M.J.. (2001). Carbonate and silicate phase reactions during ceramic firing. European Journal of Mineralogy. 13, (3), 621–634, 10.1127/0935-1221/2001/0013-0621.10.1127/0935-1221/2001/0013-0621CrossRefGoogle Scholar
da Silva Favero, J., dos Santos, V., Weiss-Angeli, V., Gomes, L.B., Veras, D.G., Dani, N., Mexias, A.S., Bergmann, C.P.. (2019). Evaluation and characterization of Melo Bentonite clay for cosmetic applications. Applied Clay Science. 175, 40–46, 10.1016/j.clay.2019.04.004.10.1016/j.clay.2019.04.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daoudi, L., Hicham, E.E., Latifa, S., Abderrahmane, A., Jamal, B., Mohamed, W., Meriam, E.O., Nathalie, F.. (2014). Characteristics and ceramic properties of clayey materials from Amezmiz region (Western High Atlas, Morocco). Applied Clay Science. 102, 139–147, 10.1016/j.clay.2014.09.029.Google Scholar
Daoudi, L. (1991). Sédimentation et diagenèse des argiles du jurassique supérieur à l'éocène dans le bassin du Haut Atlas occidental (Maroc). [Doctoral dissertation, Lille 1].Google Scholar
das Graças Silva-Valenzuela, M., Chambi-Peralta, M. M., Sayeg, I. J., de Souza Carvalho, F. M., Wang, S. H., & Valenzuela-Díaz, F. R. (2018). Enrichment of clay from Vitoria da Conquista (Brazil) for applications in cosmetics. Applied Clay Science, 155, 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2018.01.011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dondi, M., Fabbri, B., Guarini, G.. (1998). Grain-size distribution of Italian raw materials for building clay products: a reappraisal of the Winkler diagram. Clay Minerals. 33, (3), 435–442, 10.1180/000985598545732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dumbleton, M., West, G.. (1966). Some factors affecting the relation between the clay minerals in soils and their plasticity. Clay Minerals. 6, (3), 179–193, 10.1180/claymin.1966.006.3.05.10.1180/claymin.1966.006.3.05CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand Delga, M., Kornprobst, J.. (1963). Esquisse géologique de la région de Ceuta (Maroc). Bulletin De La Société Géologique De France. 7, (7), 1049–1057, 10.2113/gssgfbull.S7-V.7.1049.10.2113/gssgfbull.S7-V.7.1049CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand-Delga, M., Hottinger, L., Marçais, J., Mattauer, M., Milliard, Y., & Suter, G. (1961). Données actuelles sur la structure du Rif. En vente à la Société géologique de France.Google Scholar
El Gharbaoui, A. (1980). La terre et l'homme dans la péninsule tingitane: étude sur l'homme et le milieu naturel dans le Rif Occidental. Trav. Inst. Sci., Ser. Géol. Géogr.Google Scholar
El Ouahabi, M., Daoudi, L., Hatert, F., Fagel, N.. (2015). Modified mineral phases during clay ceramic firing. Clays and Clay Minerals. 63, (5), 404–413, 10.1346/CCMN.2015.0630506.10.1346/CCMN.2015.0630506CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El Ouahabi, M., El Idrissi, H.E.B., Daoudi, L., El Halim, M., Fagel, N.. (2019). Moroccan clay deposits: physico-chemical properties in view of provenance studies on ancient ceramics. Applied Clay Science. 172, 65–74, 10.1016/j.clay.2019.02.019.10.1016/j.clay.2019.02.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federico, E. (2020). Finding a “true Morocco:” How tourists change Moroccan economies, infrastructure and cultures. Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection 3358.Google Scholar
Ferrari, S., Gualtieri, A.. (2006). The use of illitic clays in the production of stoneware tile ceramics. Applied Clay Science. 32, (1–2), 73–81, 10.1016/j.clay.2005.10.001.10.1016/j.clay.2005.10.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiori, C., Fabbri, B., Donati, G., Venturi, I.. (1989). Mineralogical composition of the clay bodies used in the Italian tile industry. Applied Clay Science. 4, (5–6), 461–473, 10.1016/0169-1317(89)90023-9.10.1016/0169-1317(89)90023-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fletcher, W.J., Goñi, M.F.S.. (2008). Orbital-and sub-orbital-scale climate impacts on vegetation of the western Mediterranean basin over the last 48,000 yr. Quaternary Research. 70, (3), 451–464, 10.1016/j.yqres.2008.07.002.10.1016/j.yqres.2008.07.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaeta, M., Aldega, L., Astolfi, M.L., Bonechi, B., Marra, F., Pacheco, P., Perinelli, C., Tiberi, F.. (2022). Soils developed on the si-poor, alkali-rich pyroclastic rocks of the Colli Albani volcanic district (Central Italy): the effect of leucite, clinopyroxene and phlogopite on the base cations mobility. Applied Geochemistry. 145, , 10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105430.10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105430CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gliozzo, E., D’Aco, D., Memmi Turbanti, I., Galli, A., Martini, M., Sibilia, E.. (2009). Common ware production at Thamusida: dating and characterisation of Roman and Islamic pottery. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 1, 77–85, 10.1007/s12520-009-0006-3.10.1007/s12520-009-0006-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graves, M.S.. (2007). ‘A Certain Barbaric Originality’: Moroccan pottery as viewed by British travel writers of the nineteenth century. The Journal of North African Studies. 12, (4), 501–516, 10.1080/13629380701419608.10.1080/13629380701419608CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddaji, Y., Majdoubi, H., Mansouri, S., Alomayri, T.S., Allaoui, D., Manoun, B., Oumam, M., Hannache, H.. (2022). Microstructure and flexural performances of glass fibers reinforced phosphate sludge based geopolymers at elevated temperatures. Case Studies in Construction Materials. 16, , 10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e00928.10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e00928CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajjaji, W., Hachani, M., Moussi, B., Jeridi, K., Medhioub, M., López-Galindo, A., Rocha, F., Labrincha, J., Jamoussi, F.. (2010). Mineralogy and plasticity in clay sediments from North-East Tunisia. Journal of African Earth Sciences. 57, (1–2), 41–46, 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2009.07.007.10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2009.07.007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hénin, S., Rautureau, M., Caillère, S.. (1982). Minéralogie des argiles. Masson Paris.Google Scholar
Hole, F.D., Campbell, J.B.. (1985). Soil landscape analysis. Government Institutes.Google Scholar
Holtz, R.D., Kovacs, W.D., Sheahan, T.C.. (1981). An introduction to geotechnical engineering. Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs.Google Scholar
Jump, H.B.. (2003). The Impact of Tourism on the Traditional Potters' Communities in the Maghreb Country of Morocco. An Ethnological Study. Area Studies, Business and Culture: Results of the Bavarian Research Network Forarea. 12, 70.Google Scholar
Kornmann, M. (2005). Matériaux de construction en terre cuite: Fabrication et propriétés.Google Scholar
León, R.A.G., Solano, E.F., Peñaloza, C.A.. (2018). Caracterización térmica de mezclas de arcillas utilizadas en la fabricación de productos de mampostería para la construcción. Revista Colombiana de Tecnologías de Avanzada. 1, (31), 22–30, 10.24054/16927257.v31.n31.2018.2760.Google Scholar
Maass-Lindemann, G.. (1992). A comparison of the phoenician pottery of lixus with the west phoenician pottery of Spain. Publications De L'école Française De Rome. 166, (1), 175–180.Google Scholar
Majdoubi, H., Haddaji, Y., Mansouri, S., Alaoui, D., Tamraoui, Y., Semlal, N., Oumam, M., Manoun, B., Hannache, H.. (2021). Thermal, mechanical and microstructural properties of acidic geopolymer based on moroccan kaolinitic clay. Journal of Building Engineering. 35, , 10.1016/j.jobe.2020.102078.10.1016/j.jobe.2020.102078CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maritan, L., Nodari, L., Mazzoli, C., Milano, A., Russo, U.. (2006). Influence of firing conditions on ceramic products: experimental study on clay rich in organic matter. Applied Clay Science. 31, (1–2), 1–15, 10.1016/j.clay.2005.08.007.10.1016/j.clay.2005.08.007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marrone, S., Monie, P., Rossetti, F., Aldega, L., Bouybaouene, M., Charpentier, D., Lucci, F., Phillips, D., Theye, T., Zaghloul, M.N.. (2021). Timing of Alpine orogeny and postorogenic extension in the Alboran Domain, inner Rif chain, Morocco. Tectonics. 40, (7), e2021TC006707, 10.1029/2021TC006707.10.1029/2021TC006707CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martínez Sánchez, R.M., Rodríguez, J.C.V., Caro, J.G., Pardo-Gordó, S., Pérez-Jordà, G., Peña-Chocarro, L.. (2021). Reflections on the other side. A Southern Iberia origin for the first pottery production of Northern Morocco. Open Archaeology. 7, (1), 1054–1065, 10.1515/opar-2020-0174.10.1515/opar-2020-0174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martínez-Sánchez, R.M., Vera-Rodríguez, J.C., Pérez-Jordà, G., Pena-Chocarro, L., Bokbot, Y.. (2018). The beginning of the Neolithic in northwestern Morocco. Quaternary International. 470, 485–496, 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.05.052.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, F.. (1963). Two instruments for studying the plasticity of clays. Journal of Scientific Instruments. 40, (5), 228, 10.1088/0950-7671/40/5/314.10.1088/0950-7671/40/5/314CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, D.M., Reynolds, R.C.. (1989). X-ray Diffraction and the Identification and Analysis of Clay Minerals. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Moussout, H., Ahlafi, H., Aazza, M., Chfaira, R., Mounir, C.. (2020). Interfacial electrochemical properties of natural Moroccan Ghassoul (stevensite) clay in aqueous suspension. Heliyon. 6, (3), , 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03634.10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03634CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, H.H.. (2006). Applied clay mineralogy: Occurrences, processing and applications of kaolins, bentonites, palygorskitesepiolite, and common clays. Elsevier.Google Scholar
Murthy, V.. (2002). Geotechnical engineering: Principles and practices of soil mechanics and foundation engineering. CRC Press, 10.1201/9781482275858.10.1201/9781482275858CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nahdi, K., Gasmi, N., Ayedi, M.T., Kbir-Ariguib, N.. (2001). Characterization and thermal behavior of jebel ressas clay. Journal De La Société Chimique De Tunisie. 4, (9), 1125–1134.Google Scholar
Negro, F., Beyssac, O., Goffé, B., Saddiqi, O., Bouybaouene, M.. (2006). Thermal structure of the Alboran Domain in the Rif (northern Morocco) and the Western Betics (Southern Spain). Constraints from Raman spectroscopy of carbonaceous material. Journal of metamorphic Geology. 24, (4), 309–327, 10.1111/j.1525-1314.2006.00639.x.10.1111/j.1525-1314.2006.00639.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nekhlaoui, S., Essabir, H., Bensalah, M., Fassi-Fehri, O., Qaiss, A., Bouhfid, R.. (2014). Fracture study of the composite using essential work of fracture method: PP–SEBS–g–MA/E1 clay. Materials & Design. 53, 741–748, 10.1016/j.matdes.2013.07.089.10.1016/j.matdes.2013.07.089CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez-Folgado, M., Sierro, F.J., Flores, J.A., Grimalt, J.O., Zahn, R.. (2004). Paleoclimatic variations in foraminifer assemblages from the Alboran Sea (Western Mediterranean) during the last 150 ka in ODP site 977. Marine Geology. 212, (1–4), 113–131, 10.1016/j.margeo.2004.08.002.10.1016/j.margeo.2004.08.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Picon, M.. (1995). Pour une relecture de la céramique marocaine: caractéristiques des argiles et des produits, techniques de fabrication, facteurs économiques et sociaux. Ethno-archéologie méditerranéenne. 54, 141–158.Google Scholar
Reed, J. S. (1995). Principles of ceramics processing. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (US), 152.Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Ruiz, M.D., Abad, I., Bentabol, M.J.. (2019). Permo-triassic clastic rocks from the Ghomaride complex and Federico units (Rif Cordillera, N Morocco): an example of diagenetic-metamorphic transition. Minerals. 9, (12), 738, 10.3390/min9120738.10.3390/min9120738CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rognon, P.. (1987). Late quaternary climatic reconstruction for the Maghreb (North Africa). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 58, (1–2), 11–34, 10.1016/0031-0182(87)90003-4.10.1016/0031-0182(87)90003-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, G., Kodama, H.. (1976). Experimental alteration of a chlorite into a regularly interstratified chlorite-vermiculite by chemical oxidation. Clays and Clay Minerals. 24, 183–190, 10.1346/ccmn.1976.0240406.10.1346/CCMN.1976.0240406CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruellan, A. (1969). Quelques réflexions sur le rôle des sols dans l’interprétation des variations bioclimatiques du Pléistocène marocain. Revue de Géographie du Maroc, 15, 129–140.Google Scholar
Sancho, C., Arenas, C., Vázquez-Urbez, M., Pardo, G., Lozano, M.V., Peña-Monné, J.L., Hellstrom, J., Ortiz, J.E., Osácar, M.C., Auqué, L.. (2015). Climatic implications of the quaternary fluvial tufa record in the NE Iberian Peninsula over the last 500 ka. Quaternary Research. 84, (3), 398–414, 10.1016/j.yqres.2015.08.003.10.1016/j.yqres.2015.08.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepard, F.P.. (1954). Nomenclature based on sand-silt-clay ratios. Journal of Sedimentary Research. 24, (3), 151–158, 10.1306/D4269774-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D.Google Scholar
Strazzera, B., Dondi, M., Marsigli, M.. (1997). Composition and ceramic properties of tertiary clays from southern Sardinia (Italy). Applied Clay Science. 12, (3), 247–266, 10.1016/S0169-1317(97)00010-0.10.1016/S0169-1317(97)00010-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Velde, B.. (1992). Origin of clays: Introduction to Clay MineralsChemistry, origins, uses and environmental significance. Springer. 198.Google Scholar
Viseras, C., Lopez-Galindo, A.. (1999). Pharmaceutical applications of some Spanish clays (sepiolite, palygorskite, bentonite): some preformulation studies. Applied Clay Science. 14, (1–3), 69–82, 10.1016/S0169-1317(98)00050-7.10.1016/S0169-1317(98)00050-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wan, Y., Kwong, J., Brandes, H.G., Jones, R.. (2002). Influence of amorphous clay-size materials on soil plasticity and shrink-swell behavior. Journal of Geotechnical Geoenvironmental Engineering. 128, (12), 1026–1031, 10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:12(1026).10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2002)128:12(1026)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wetshondo Osomba, D. (2012). Caractérisation et valorisation des matériaux argileux de la Province de Kinshasa (RD Congo). [Doct. sc. ingé., Liège].Google Scholar
Williams, L.B., Haydel, S.E.. (2010). Evaluation of the medicinal use of clay minerals as antibacterial agents. International Geology Review. 52, (7–8), 745–770, 10.1080/00206811003679737.10.1080/00206811003679737CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilmsen, E.N., Griffiths, A., Thebe, P., Killick, D., Molatlhegi, G.. (2016). Moijabana Rocks-Pilikwe pots: the acceleration of clay formation by potters employing simple mechanical means. Ethnoarchaeology. 8, (2), 137–157, 10.1080/19442890.2016.1215885.10.1080/19442890.2016.1215885CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeskis, D., Koster van Groos, A., Guggenheim, S.. (1985). The dehydroxylation of kaolinite. American Mineralogist. 70, (1–2), 159–164.Google Scholar