Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-wjfd9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-31T02:05:43.941Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Lessons Learned in Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement and Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Frank M. Skidmore ,
Ramon L. Rodriguez ,
Hubert H. Fernandez ,
Wayne K. Goodman ,
Kelly D. Foote  and
Michael S. Okun
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The introduction of deep brain stimulation (DBS) as a treatment for medication-refractory essential tremor in the late 1980s revealed, for the first time, that “chronically” implanted brain hardware had the potential to modulate neurologic function with surprisingly low morbidity. Over time, the therapeutic promise of DBS has become evident in Parkinson's disease and dystonia. In some experienced centers, complex tremor disorders, such as posttraumatic Holmes tremor and the tremor of multiple sclerosis, are being increasingly targeted. More recently, other indications, including obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, major depression, and chronic pain, have been proposed. As the field has expanded, our knowledge about potential cognitive side effects of DBS has also expanded. This article reviews the current knowledge regarding the impact of stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus internus, and ventralis intermedius nucleus of the thalamus on symptoms in essential tremor, Parkinson's disease, and dystonia. Also discussed are the emerging targets, what is known about the cognitive sequelae of DBS, and what has been learned about the complications and therapeutic failures.

Information

Type
Review Articles
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 11 , Issue 7 , July 2006 , pp. 521 - 537
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

1.Speelman, JD, Bosch, DA. Resurgence of functional neurosurgery for Parkinson's disease: a historical perspective. Mov Disord. 1998;13:582–588.Google Scholar
2.Meyers, R. Surgical experiments in the therapy of certain “extrapyramidal” diseases: a current evaluation. Acta Neurol. 1951;67:1–42.Google Scholar
3.Walter, BL, Vitek, JL. Surgical treatment of Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3:719–728.Google Scholar
4.Svennilson, E, Torvik, A, Lowe, R, Leksell, L. Treatment of parkinsonism by stereotatic thermolesions in the pallidal region. A clinical evaluation of 81 cases. Acta Psychiatr Neurol Scand. 1960;35:358–377.Google Scholar
5.Broager, B, Fog, T. Thalamotomy for the relief of intention tremor in multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol Scand. 1962;38(suppl 3):153–156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Fox, JL, Kurtzke, JF. Trauma-induced intention tremor relieved by stereotaxic thalamotomy. Arch Neurol. 1966;15:247–251.Google Scholar
7.Ohye, C, Hirai, T, Miyazaki, M, Shibazaki, T, Nakajima, H. Vim thalamotomy for the treatment of various kinds of tremor. Appl Neurophysiol. 1982;45:275–280.Google ScholarPubMed
8.Tasker, RR, Siqueira, J, Hawrylyshyn, P, Organ, LW. What happened to VIM thalamotomy for Parkinson's disease? Appl Neurophysiol. 1983;46:68–83.Google Scholar
9.Benabid, AL, Pollak, P, Louveau, A, Henry, S, de Rougemont, J. Combined (thalamotomy and stimulation) stereotactic surgery of the VIM thalamic nucleus for bilateral Parkinson disease. Appl Neurophysiol. 1987;50:344–346.Google ScholarPubMed
10.Blond, S, Siegfried, J. Thalamic stimulation for the treatment of tremor and other movement disorders. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien). 1991;52:109–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Gildenberg, PL. Spiegel and Wycis–the early years. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2001;77:11–16.Google Scholar
12.Speigel, EA, Wycis, HT, Marks, M, Lee, AJ. Stereotaxic apparatus for operations on the human brain. Science. 1947; 06:349–350.Google Scholar
13.DeLong, MR. Primate models of movement disorders of basal ganglia origin. Trends Neurosci. 1990;13:281–285.Google Scholar
14.Albin, RL, Young, AB. Penney, JB. The functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders. Trends Neurosci. 1989;12:366–375.Google Scholar
15.Okun, MS, Vitek, JL. Lesion therapy for Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders: update and controversies. Mov Disord. 2004;19:375–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Starr, PA, Turner, RS, Rau, G, et al.Microelectrode-guided implantation of deep brain stimulators into the globus pallidus internus for dystonia: techniques, electrode locations, and outcomes. Neurosurg Focus. 2004;17:E4.Google Scholar
17.Papavassiliou, E, Rau, G, Heath, S, et al.Thalamic deep brain stimulation for essential tremor: relation of lead location to outcome. Neurosurgery. 2004;54:1120–1129.Google Scholar
18.Starr, PA, Christine, CW, Theodosopoulos, PV, et al.Implantation of deep brain stimulators into the subthalamic nucleus: technical approach and magnetic resonance imaging-verified lead locations. J Neurosurg. 2002;97:370–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Vitek, JL. Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease. A critical re-evaluation of STN versus GPi DBS. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2002;78:119–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Volkman, J. Deep brain stimulation for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21:6–17.Google Scholar
21.McIntyre, CC, Grill, WM, Sherman, DL, Thakor, NV. Cellular effects of deep brain stimulation: model-based analysis of activation and inhibition. J Neurophysiol. 2004;91:1457–1469.Google Scholar
22.McIntyre, CC, Mori, S, Sherman, DL, Thakor, NV, Vitek, JL. Electric field and stimulating Influence generated by deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115:589–595.Google Scholar
23.Grill, WM, Snyder, AN, Miocinovic, S. Deep brain stimulation creates an informational lesion of the stimulated nucleus. Neuroreport. 2004;15:1137–1140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Strafella, A, Ashby, P, Munz, M, Dostrovsky, JO, Lozano, Am, Lang, AE. Inhibition of voluntary activity by thalamic stumulation in humans: relevance for the control of tremor. Mov Disord. 1997;12:727–737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25.Beurrier, C, bioulac, B, Audin, J, Hammond, C. High-frequency stimulation produces a transient blockade of voltage-gated currents in subthalamic neurons. J Neurophysiol. 2001;85:1351–1356.Google Scholar
26.Dostrovsky, JO, Levy, R, Wu, JP, Hutchison, WD, Tasker, RR, Lozano, AM. Microstimulation-induced inhibition of neuronal firing in human globus pallidus. J Neurophysiol. 2000;84:570–574.Google Scholar
27.Hashimoto, T, Elder, CM, Okun, MS, Patrick, SK, Vitek, JL. Stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus changes the firing pattern of pallidal neurons. J Neurosci. 2003;23:1916–1923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Lozano, AM, Dostrovsky, J, Chen, R, Ashby, P. Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: disrupting the disruption. Lancet Neurol. 2002;1:225–231.Google Scholar
29.Okun, MS, Foote, KD. Subthalamic nucleus vs globus pallidus interna deep brain stimulation, the rematch: will pallidal deep brain stimulation make a triumphant return? Arch Neurol. 2005;62:533–536.Google Scholar
30.Gibb, WR, Lees, AJ. The relevance of the Lewy body to the pathogenesis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988;51:745–752.Google Scholar
31.Okun, MS, Fernandez, HH, Pedraza, O, et al.Development and initial validation of a screening tool for Parkinson disease surgical candidates. Neurology. 2004;13;63:161–1633.Google Scholar
32.Martinez-Martin, P, Gil-Nagel, A, Gracia, LM, Gomez, JB, Martinez-Sarries, J, Bermejo, F. Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale characteristics and structure. The Cooperative Multicentric Group. Mov Disord. 1994;9:76–83.Google Scholar
33.Richards, M, Marder, K, Cote, L, Mayeux, R. Interrater reliability of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale motor examination. Mov Disord. 1994;9:89–91.Google Scholar
34.Fahn, S, Marsden, CD, Calne, DB, Goldstein, M, eds. Recent Developments in Parkinson's Disease, vol 2. Florham Park, NJ: Macmillan Health Care Information 1987.Google Scholar
35.Pillon, B. Neuropsychological assessment for management of patients with deep brain stimulation. Mov Disord. 2002;17(suppl 3):S116–S122.Google Scholar
36.Saint-Cyr, JA, Trepanier, LL, Kumar, R, Lozano, AM, Lang, AE. Neuropsychological consequences of chronic bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease. Brain. 2000;123:2091–2108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37.Limousin, P, Krack, P, Pollak, P, et al.Electrical stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in advanced Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med. 1998;339-1105–1111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.Burchiel, KJ, Anderson, VC, Favre, J, Hmmerstad, JP. Comparison of pallidal and subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation for advanced Parkinson's disease: results of a randomized, blinded pilot study. Neurosurgery. 1999;45:1375–1382.Google Scholar
39.Funiewiez, A, Ardouin, C, Krack, P, et al.Acute psychotropic effects of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation and levodopa in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2003;18:524–530.Google Scholar
40.Schneider, F, Habel, U, Volkmann, J, et al.Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus enhances emotional processing in Parkinson's disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:296–302.Google Scholar
41.Ardouin, C, Pillon, B, Peiffer, E, et al.Bilateral subthalamic or pallidal stimulation for Parkinson's disease affects neither memory or executive functions: a consecutive series of 62 patients. Ann Neurol. 1999;46:217–223.Google Scholar
42.Pillon, B, Ardouin, C, Damier, P, et al.Neuropsychological changes between “off” and “on” STN or GPi stimulation in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2000;55:411–418.Google Scholar
43.Kulisevsky, J, Berthier, ML, Gironell, A, Pascual-Sedano, B, Molet, J, Pares, P. Mania following deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease. Neurology.2002;59:1421–1424.Google Scholar
44.Krack, P, Kumar, R, Ardouin, C, et al.Mirthful laughter induced by subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Mov Disord. 2001;16:867–875.Google Scholar
45.Doshi, PK, Chhaya, N, Bhatt, MH: Depression leading to attempted suicide after bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation for Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2002;17:1084–1085.Google Scholar
46.Bejjani, BP, Damier, P, Arnulf, I, et al.Transient acute depression induced by high-frequency deep-brain stimulation. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1476–1480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Dujardin, K, Defebvre, L, Krystkowiak, P, Blond, S, Destee, A. Influence of chronic bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus on cognitive function in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol. 2001;248:603–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Hariz, MI, Johansson, F, Shamsgovara, P, Johansson, E, Hariz, GM, Fagerlund, M. Bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation in a parkinsonian patient with preoperative deficits in speech and cognition: persistent improvement in mobility but increased dependency: a case study. Mov Disord. 2000;15:136–139.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49.Trepanier, LL, Kumar, R, Lozano, AM, Lang, AE, Saint-Cyr, JA. Neuropsychological outcome of GPi pallidotomy and GPi or STN deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease. Brain Cogn. 2000;42:324–347.Google Scholar
50.Thobois, S, Mertens, P, Guenot, M, et al.Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinson's disease: clinical evaluation of 18 patients. J Neurol. 2002;249:529–534.Google Scholar
51.Tagliati, M, Pourfar, MH, Alterman, RL. Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in Parkinson disease patients over age 70 years. Neurology. 2005;65:179–180.Google Scholar
52.Russmann, H, Ghika, J, Villemure, JG, et al.Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in Parkinson disease patients over age 70 years. Neurology. 2004;63:1952–1954.Google Scholar
53.Vingerhoets, G, van der Linden, C, Lannoo, E, et al.Cognitive outcome after unilateral pallidal stimulation in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;66:297–304.Google Scholar
54.Fraix, V, Pollak, P, Mora, E, et al.Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in tremor dominant parkinsonian patients with previous thalamic surgery. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:246–248.Google Scholar
55.Germano, IM, Grades, JM, Weisz, DJ, Tse, W, Koller, WC, Olanow, CW. Unilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson disease: a double-blind 12-month evaluation study. J Neurosurg. 2004;101:36–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Pahwa, R, Wilkinson, SB, Overfman, J, Lyons, DE. Bilateral subthalamic stimulation in patients with Parkinson disease:long-term follow up. J Neurosurg. 2003;99:71–77.Google Scholar
57.Limousin, P, Pollak, P, Bennazzouz, A, et al.Effect of parkinsonian signs and symptoms of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Lancet. 1995;345:91–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Krack, P, Pollak, P, Limosin, P, et al.Subthalamic nucleus or internal pallidal stimulation in young onset Parkinson's disease. Brain. 1998;121(pt 3):451–457.Google Scholar
59.Moro, E, Scerrati, M, Romito, LM, Roselli, R, Tonali, P, Albanese, A. Chronic subthalamic nucleus stimulation reduces medication requirements in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1999;53:85–90.Google Scholar
60.Bejani, BP, dormont, D, Pidous, B, et al.Bilateral subthalamic stimulation for Parkinson's disease by using three-dimensional stereotactic magnetic resonance imaging and electrophysiological guidance. J Neurosurg. 2000;92:615–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61.Fraix, V, Pollak, P, Van Bercom, N, et al.Effect of subthalamic nucleus stimulation in advanced Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2000;55:1921–1923.Google Scholar
62.The Deep-Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's Disease Study Group. Deep-brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus or the pars interna of the globus pallidus in Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:956–963.Google Scholar
63.Volkmann, J, allert, N, Voges, J, Weiss, PH, Freund, HJ, Sturm, V. Safety and efficacy of pallidal or subthalamic nucleus stimulatio in advanced PD. Neurology. 2001;56:548–551.Google Scholar
64.Lopiano, L, Rizzone, M, Bergamasco, B, et al.Deep brain stimuation of the subthalamic nucleus: clinical effectiveness and safety. Neurology. 2001;56:552–554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65.Romito, LM, Scerrati, M, Contarino, MF, Benivoglio, AR, Tonali, P, Albanse, A. Long-term follow up of subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2002;96:666–672.Google Scholar
66.Kleiner-Fisman, G, Fisman, DN, Sime, E, Saint-Cyr, JA, Lozano, AM, Lang, AE. Long-term follow up of bilateral deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in patients with advanced Parkinson disease. J Neurosrg. 2003;99:489–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
67.Krack, P, Batir, A, Van Blercom, N, et al.Five year follow-up of bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in advanced Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1925–1934.Google Scholar
68.Rodriguez-Oroz, MC, Obeso, JA, Lang, AE, et al.Bilateral deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease: a multicentre study with 4 years follow-up. Brain. 2005;128(pt 101:2240–2249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69.Ostergaard, K, Aa Sunde N Evolution of Parkinson's disease during 4 years of bilateral deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus. Mov Disord. 2006;21:624–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70.Ostergaard, K, Sunde, N, Dupont, E. Effects of bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in patients with severe Parkinson's disease and motor fluctuations. Mov Disord. 2002;17:693–700.Google Scholar
71.Anderson, VC, Burchiel, KJ, Hogarth, P, Favre, J, Hammerstad, JP. Pallidal vs subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2005;62:554–560.Google Scholar
72.Scotto di Luzio, AE, Ammannati, F, Martini, P, Sorbi, S, Mennonna, P. Which target for DBS in Parkinson's disease? Subthalamic nucleus versus globus pallidus internus. Neurol Sci. 2001;22:87–88.Google Scholar
73.Volkmann, J, Allert, N, Voges, J, Weiss, PH, Freund, HJ, Sturm, V. Safety and efficacy of pallidal or subthalamic nucleus stimulation in advanced PD. Neurology. 2001;56:548–551.Google Scholar
74.Volkman, J, Sturm, V, Weiss, P, et al.Bilateral high-frequency stimulation of the internal globus pallidus in advanced Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol. 1998;44:953–956.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
75.Kumar, R, Lang, AE, Rodrigue-Oroz, MC, et al.Deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus pars interna in advanced Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol. 1998;55(suppl 6):S34–S39.Google Scholar
76.Benabid, AL, Benazzouz, A, Limousin, P, et al.Dyskinesias and the subthalamic nucleus. Ann Neurol. 2000;47(4 suppl 1):S189–S192.Google Scholar
77.Walter, BL, Vitek, JL. Surgical treatment for Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3:719–728.Google Scholar
78.Bejjani, BP, Arnulf, I, Demeret, S, et al.Levodopa-induced dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease: is sensitization reversible? Ann Neurol. 2000;47:655–658.Google Scholar
79.Nutt, JG, Rufener, SI, Carte, JH, et al.Interactions between deep brain stimulation and levodopa in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2001;57:1835–1842.Google Scholar
80.Ghika, J, Villemure, JG, Fankhauser, H, Favre, J, Assal, G, Ghika-Schmid, F. Efficiency and safety of bilateral contemporaneous pallidal stimulation (deep brain stimulation) in levodopa-responsive patients with Parkinson's disease with severe motor fluctuations: a 2-year follow-up review. J Neurosurg. 1998;89:713–718.Google Scholar
81.Loher, TJ, Burgunder, JM, Pohle, T, Weber, S, Sommerhalder, R, Krauss, JK. Long-term pallidal deep brain stimulation in patients with advanced Parkinson disease: 1 year follow-up study. J Neurosurg. 2002;96:844–853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82.Defebvre, LU, Krystkowiak, P, Blatt, JL, et al.Influence of pallidal stimulation on levodopa on gait and preparatory postural adjustements in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2002;17:76–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
83.Krystkowiak, P, Blatt, JL, Boourriez, JL, et al.Chronic bilateral pallial stimulation and levodopa do not improve gait in the same way in Parkinson's diseae: a study using a video motoion analysis system. J Neurol. 2001;248:944–949.Google Scholar
84.Pawha, R, Wilkinson, S, Smith, D, Lyons, K, Miyawai, E, Koller, WC. High-frequency stimulation of the globus pallidus for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1997;49:249–253.Google Scholar
85.Minguez-Castellanos, A, Escamilla-Sevilla, F, Katati, MJ, et al.Different patterns of medication change after subthalamic or pallidal stimulation for Parkinson's disease: target related effect or selection bias? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005 76:34–39.Google Scholar
86.Volkman, J, Allert, N, Voges, J, Sturm, V, Schnitzler, A, Freund, HJ. Long-term results of bilateral pallidal stimulation in Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol. 2004;55:871–875.Google Scholar
87.Koller, W, Pahwa, R, Busenbark, K, et al.High-frequency unilateral thalamic stimulation in the treatment of essential tremor and parkinsonian tremor. Ann Neurol. 1997;42:292–299.Google Scholar
88.Blond, S, Caparros-Lefebvre, D, Parker, F, et al.Control of tremor and involuntary movement disorders by chronic stereotactic stimulation of the ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus. J Neurosurg. 1992;77:62–68.Google Scholar
89.Benabid, AL, Pollak, P, Gao, D, et al.Chronic electrical stimulation of the ventralis inter-medius nucleus of the thalamus as a treatment of movement disorders. J Neurosurg. 1996;84:203–214.Google Scholar
90.Hubble, JP, Busenbark, KL, Wilkinson, S, et al.Effects of thalamic deep brain stimulation based on tremor type and diagnosis. Mov Disord. 1997;12:337–341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91.Ondo, W, Jankovic, J, Schwartz, K, Almaguer, M, Simpson, RK. Unilateral thalamic deep brain stimulation of refractory essential tremor and Parkinson's disease tremor. Neurology. 1998;51:1063–1069.Google Scholar
92.Fraix, V, Pollak, P, Mora, E, Chabardes, S, Xie, J, Ardouin, C, Benabid, AL. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in tremor dominant parkinsonian patients with previous thalamic surgery. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:246–248.Google Scholar
93.Jahanshahi, M, Ardouin, CM, Brown, RG, et al.The impact of deep brain stimulation on executive function in Parkinson's disease. Brain. 2000;123(pt 6):1142–1154.Google Scholar
94.Gironell, A, Kulisevsky, J, Rami, L, Fortuny, N, Garcia-Sanchez, C, Pascual-Sedano, B. Effects of pallidotomy and bilateral subthalamic stimulation on cognitive function in Parkinson disease. A controlled comparative study. J Neurol. 2003;250:917–923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95.Alegret, M, Junque, C, Valldeoriola, F. et al.Effects of bilateral subthalamic stimulation on cognitive function in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2001;58:1223–1227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96.Troster, AI, Fields, JA, Wilkinson, SB, et al.Unilateral pallidal stimulation for Parkinson's disease: neurobehavioral functioning before and 3 months after electrode implantation. Neurology. 1997;49:1078–1083.Google Scholar
97.Dujardin, K, Krystkowiak, P, Defebvre, L, Blond, S, Destee, A. A case of severe dysexecutive syndrome consecutive to chronic bilateral pallidal stimulation. Neuropsychologia. 2000;38:1305–1315.Google Scholar
98.Fields, JA, Troster, AI, Wilkinson, SB, Pahwa, R, Koller, WC. Cognitive outcome following staged bilateral pallidal stimulation for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1999;101:182–188.Google Scholar
99.Loher, TJ, Gutbrod, K, Fravi, NL, Pohle, T, Burgunder, JM, Krauss, JK. Thalamic stimulation for tremor. Subtle changes in episodic memory are related to stimulation per se and not to a microthalamotomy effect. J Neurol. 2003;250:707–713.Google Scholar
100.Troster, AI, Fields, JA, Pahwa, R, et al.Neuropsychological and quality of life outcome after thalamic stimulation for essential tremor. Neurology. 1999;53:1774–1780.Google Scholar
101.Fields, JA, Troster, AI, Woods, SP, et al.Neuropsychological and quality of life outcomes 12 months after unilateral thalamic stimulation for essential tremor. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74:305–311.Google Scholar
102.Woods, SP, Fields, JA, Lyons, KE, et al.Neuropsychological and quality of life changes following unilateral thalamic deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease: a one-year follow-up. Acta Neurochir(Wien). 2001;143:1273–1277.Google Scholar
103.Fields, JA, Troster, AI, Woods, SR, et al.Neuropsychological and quality of life outcomes 12 months after unilateral thalamic stimulation for essential tremor. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74:305–311.Google Scholar
104.Kumar, R, Dagher, A, Hutchison, WD, Lang, AE, Lozano, AM. Globus pallidus deep brain stimulation for generalized dystonia: clinical and PET investigation. Neurology. 1999;53:871–874.Google Scholar
105.Perozzo, P, Rizzone, M, Bergamasco, B, et al.Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease: comparison of pre- and postoperative neuropsychological evaluation. J Neurol Sci. 2001;192:9–15.Google Scholar
106.Troster, AI, Fields, JA, Pahwa, R, et al.Neuropsychological and quality of life outcome after thalamic stimulation for essential tremor. Neurology. 1999;53:1774–1780.Google Scholar
107.Lucas, JA, Rippeth, JD, Uitti, RJ, Shuster, EA, Wharen, RE. Neuropsychological functioning in a patient with essential tremor with and without bilateral VIM stimulation. Brain Cogn. 2000;42:253–267.Google Scholar
108.Miyawaki, E, Troster, AI. Introduction to neurobehavioral issues in pallidotomy and pallidal stimulation. Brain Cogn. 2000;42:309–312.Google Scholar
109.Woods, SP, Fields, JA, Lyons, KE, Pahwa, R, Troster, AI. Pulse width is associated with cognitive decline after thalamic stimulation for essential tremor. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2003;9:295–300.Google Scholar
110.Jenkinson, N, Nandi, D, Miall, RC, Stein, JF, Aziz, TZ. Pedunculopontine nucleus stimulation improves akinesia in a Parkinsonian monkey. Neuroreport. 2004;15:2621–2624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111.Plaha, R, Gill, SS. Bilateral deep brain stimulation of the pedunculopontine nucleus for Parkinson's disease. Neuroreport. 2005;16:1883–1887.Google Scholar
112.Lyons, KE, Pahwa, R, Cornelia, CL, et al.Benefits and risks of pharmacological treatments for essential tremor. Drug Sal 2003;26:461–481.Google Scholar
113.Schuurman, PR, Bosch, DA, Bossuyt, PM, et al.A comparison of continuous thalamic stimulation and thalamotomy for suppression of severe tremor. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:461–468.Google Scholar
114.Tasker, RR. Deep brain stimulation is preferable to thalamotomy for tremor suppression. Surg Neurol. 1998;49:145–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115.Pawha, R, Lyons, KE, Wilkinson, SB, et al.Comparison of thalamotomy to deep brain stimulation of the thalamus in essential tremor. Mov Disord. 2001;16:140–143.Google Scholar
116.Vaillancourt, DE, Sturman, MM, Metman, LV, Bakay, RAE, Corcos, DM. Deep brain stimulation of the VIM thalamic nucleus modifies several features of essential tremor. Neurology. 2003;61:919–925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117.Ondo, W, Almaguer, M, Jankovic, J, Simpson, RK. Thalamic deep brain stimulation: comparison between unilateral and bilateral placement. Arch Neurol. 2001;342:461–468.Google Scholar
118.Obwegeser, AA, Uitti, RJ, Turk, MR, Strongosky, AJ, Wharen, RE. Thalamic stimulation for the treatment of midline tremors in essential tremor patients. Neurology. 2000;54:2342–2344.Google Scholar
119.Sydow, O, Thobois, S, Alesch, F, Speelman, JD. Multicentre European study of thalamic stimulation in essential tremor: a six year follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74:1387–1391.Google Scholar
120.Pahwa, R, Lyons, KL, Wilkinson, SB, et al. Bilateral thalamic stimulation for the treatment of essential tremor. Neurology. 1999;53:1447–1450.Google Scholar
121.Putzke, JD, Uitti, RJ, Obwegeser, AA, Wszolek, ZK, Wharen, RE. Bilateral thalamic deep brain stimulation: midline tremor control. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:684–690.Google Scholar
122.Yoon, MS, Munz, M, Sataloff, RT, Spiegel, JR, Heuer, RJ. Vocal tremor reduction with deep brain stimulation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1999;72:241–244.Google Scholar
123.Moringlane, JR, Putzer, M, Barry, WJ. Bilateral high-frequency electrical impulses to the thalamus reduce voice tremor: acoustic and eiectroglottographic analysis. A case report. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2004;261:334–336.Google Scholar
124.Taha, JM, Janszen, MA, Favre, J. Thalamic deep brain stimulation for the treatment of head, voice, and bilateral limb tremor. J Neurosurg. 1999;91:68–72.Google Scholar
125.Rehncrona, S, Johnels, B, Widner, H, Tornquist, AL, Hariz, M, Sydow, O. Long-term efficacy of thalamic deep brain stimulation for tremor: double blind assessments. Mov Disord. 2003;18:163–170.Google Scholar
126.Lyons, KE, Koller, WC, Wilkinson, SB, Pahwa, R. Long term safety and efficacy of unilateral deep brain stimulation of the thalamus for parkinsonian tremor. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;71:682–684.Google Scholar
127.Lyons, KE, Pahway, R. Deep brain stimulation and essential tremor. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21:2–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
128.Pahwa, R, Lyons, KL, Wilkinson, SB, et al.Bilateral thalamic stimulation for the treatment of essential tremor. Neurology. 1999;53:1447–1450.Google Scholar
129.Limousin, P, Speelman, JD, Gielen, F, Janssens, M. Multicentre European study of thalamic stimulation in parkinsonian and essential tremor. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;66:289–296.Google Scholar
130.Hariz, MI, Shamsgovara, P, Johansson, F, Hariz, G, Fodstad, H. Tolerance and tremor rebound following long-term chronic thalamic stimulation for Parkinsonian and essential tremor. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1999;72:208–218.Google Scholar
131.Kronenbuerger, M, Fromm, C, Block, F, et al.On-demand deep brain stimulation for essential tremor: a report on four cases. Mov Disord. 2005;21:401–405.Google Scholar
132.Dowsey-Limousin, P. Postoperative management of Vim DBS for tremor. Mov Disord. 2002;17 Suppl 3:S208–S211.Google Scholar
133.Lozano, AM, Kumar, R, Gross, RE, et al.Globus pallidus internus pallidotomy for generalized dystonia. Mov Disord. 1997;12:865–870.Google Scholar
134.Vercueil, L, Pollak, P, Fraix, V, et al.Deep brain stimulation in the treatment of severe dystonia. J Neurol. 2001;248:695–700.Google Scholar
135.Krack, P, Vercueil, L, Review of the functional surgical treatment of dystonia. Eur J Neurol. 2001;8:389–399.Google Scholar
136.Krauss, JK, Yianni, J, Loher, TJ, Aziz, TZ. Deep brain stimulation for dystonia. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21:18–30.Google Scholar
137.Coubes, P, Echenne, B, Roubertie, A, et al.Treatment of early-onset generalized dystonia by chronic bilateral stimulation of the internal globus pallidus: apropos of a case. Neurochirurgie. 1999;45:139–144.Google Scholar
138.Coubes, P, Roubertie, A, Vayssiere, N, Hemm, S, Echenne, B. Treatment of DYT1-generalized dystonia by stimulation of the internal globus pallidus. Lancet. 2000;355:2220–2221.Google Scholar
139.Krauss, JK, Pohle, T, Weber, S, Ozdoba, C, Burgunder, JM. Bilateral stimulation of the globus pallidus internus for treatment of cervical dystonia. Lancet. 1999;354:837–838.Google Scholar
140.Krauss, JK, Loher, TJ, Weigel, R, Capelle, HH, Weber, S, Burgunder, JM. Chronic stimulation of the globus pallidus internus for treatment of non-dYT1 generalized dystonia and choreoathetosis: 2-year follow up. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:785–792.Google Scholar
141.Bereznai, B, Steude, U, Seelos, K, Botzel, K. Chronic high-frequency globus pallidus internus stimulation in different types of dystonia: a clnical, video and MRI report of six patients presenting with segmental, cervical, and generalized dystonia. Mov Disord. 2002;17:138–144.Google Scholar
142.Cif, L, EI Fertit, H, Vayssiere, N, et al.Treatment of dystonic syndromes by chronic electrical stimlulation of the internal globus pallidus. J Neurosurg Sci. 2003;47:52–55.Google Scholar
143.Yianni, J, Bain, PG, Giladi, N, et al.Globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation for dystonic conditions: a prospective audit. Mov Disord. 2003;18:436–442.Google Scholar
144.Vidailhet, M, Vercueil, L, Houeto, JL, et al.Bilateral deep-brain stimulation of the globus pallidus in primary generalized dystonia. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:459–467.Google Scholar
145.Foote, KD, Sanchez, JC, Okun, MS. Staged deep brain stimulation for refractory craniofacial dystonia with blepharospasm: case report and physiology. Neurosurgery. 2005;56:E415.Google Scholar
146.Saxena, S, Brody, AL, Schwartz, JM, Baxter, LR. Neruoimaging and frontal-subcortical circuitry in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Br J Psychiatry Suppl. 1998;35:26–37.Google Scholar
147.Angelini, I, Nardocci, N, Estienne, M, Conti, C, Dones, I, Broggi, G. Life-threatening dystonia-dyskinesia in a child: successful treatment with bilateral pallidal stimulation. Mov Disord. 2000;15:1010–1012.Google Scholar
148.Gill, S, Curran, A, Tripp, J, Melarickas, L, Hurran, C, Stanley, O. Hyperkinetic movement disorder in an 11-year-old child treated with bilateral stimulators. Develop Med Child Neurol. 2001;43:350–353.Google Scholar
149.Lin, JJ, Lin, SZ, Chang, DC. Pallidotomy and generalized dystonia. Mov Disord. 1999;14:1057–1059.Google Scholar
150.Teo, C. Gunctional stereotactic surgery of movement disorders in cerebral palsy. In: Krauss, JK, Jankovic, J, Grossman, RG, eds Surgery for Parkinson&s Disease and Movement Disorders. Philadelphia, Penn: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001;410–415.Google Scholar
151.Krauss, JK, Jankovic, J. Head injury and postraumatic movement disorders. Neurosurgery. 2002;50:927–940.Google Scholar
152.Loher, TJ, Hasedemir, MG, Burgunder, JM, Krauss, JK. Long-term follow-up study of chronic globus pallidus internus stimulation for post-traumataic hemidystonia J Neurosurg. 2000;92:457–460.Google Scholar
153.Yianni, J, Bain, P, Giladi, N, et al.Globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation for dystonic conditions: a prospective audit. Mov Disord. 2003;18:436–442.Google Scholar
154.Krauss, JK, Yianni, J, Loher, TJ, Aziz, TZ. Deep brain stimulation for dystonia. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21:18–30.Google Scholar
155.Trottenberg, T, Volkmann, J, Deuschl, G, et al.Treatment of severe tardive dystonia with pallidal deep brain stimulation. Neurology. 2005;64:344–346.Google Scholar
156.Franzini, A, Marras, C, Ferroli, P, et al.Long-term high-frequency bilateral pallidal stimulation for neuroleptic-induced tardive dystonia. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg. 2005;102:721–725.Google Scholar
157.Magyar-Lehmann, S, Antomini, A, Roelcke, U, et al.Cerebral glucose metabolism in patients with spasmodic torticollis. Mov Disord. 1997;12:704–708.Google Scholar
158.Naumann, M, Pirker, W, Reiners, K, Lange, KW, Becker, G, Brucke, T. Imaging the pre-and post-synaptic side of striatal dopmainergic synapses in idiopathic cervical dystonia: a SPECT study using 1231 epideprideand 1231 beta-CIT. Mov Disord. 1998;13:319–323.Google Scholar
159.Tagliati, M, Shils, J, Sun, C, Alterman, R. Deep brain stimulation for dystonia. Expert Rev Med Devices. 2004;1:33–41.Google Scholar
160.Deuschl, G, Krack, P, Lauk, M, Timmer, J. Clinical neurophysiology of tremor. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1996;13:110–121.Google Scholar
161.Alusi, SH, Worthington, J, Glickman, S, Bain, PG. A study of tremor in ultiple sclerosis. Brain. 2001;124:720–730.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
162.Andersson, PB, Goodkin, DE. Current pharmacologic treatment of multiple sclerosis symptoms. West J Med. 1996;165:313–317.Google Scholar
163.Clanet, MG, Brassat, D. The management of multiple sclerosis patients. Curr Opin Neurd. 2000;13:263–270.Google Scholar
164.Metz, L. Multiple sclerosis: symptomatic therapies. Semin Neurol. 1998;18:389–395.Google Scholar
165.Benabid, AL, Pollak, P, Gross, C, et al.Acute and long-term effects of subthalamic nucleus stimulation in Parkinson's disease. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1994;62:76–84.Google Scholar
166.Benabid, AL, Koudsie, A, Benazzouz, A, et al.Deep brain stimulation of the corpus luysi (subthalamic nucleus) and other targets in Parkinson's disease. Extension to new indications such as dystonia and epilepsy. J Neurol. 2001;248(suppl 3):III37–III47.Google Scholar
167.Kim, MC, Son, BC, Miyagi, Y, Kang, JK. Vim thalamotomy for Holmes' tremor secondary to midbrain tumour. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73:453–455.Google Scholar
168.Deuschl, G, Wilms, H, Krack, P, Wurker, M, Heiss, WD. Function of the cerebellum in Parkinsonian rest tremor and Holmes' tremor. Ann Neurol. 1999;46:126–128.Google Scholar
169.Krauss, JK, Mohadjer, M, Nobbe, R, Mundinger, F. The treatment of posttraumatic tremor by stereotactic surgery. Symptomatic and functional outcome in a series of 35 patients. J Neurosurg. 1994;80:810–819.Google Scholar
170.Pahwa, R, Lyons, KE, Kempf, L, Wilkinson, SB, Koller, WC. Thalamic stimulation for midbrain tremor after partial hemangioma resection. Mov Disord. 2002;17:404–407.Google Scholar
171.Samadani, U, Umemura, A, Jaggi, JL, Colcher, A, Zager, EL, Baltuch, GH. Thalamic deep brain stimulation for disabling tremor after excision of a midbrain cavernous angioma. Case report. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:888–890.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
172.Berk, C, Carr, J, Sinden, M, Martzke, J, Honey, CR. Thalamic deep brain stimulation for the treatment of tremor due to multiple sclerosis: a prospective study of tremor and quality of life. J Neurosurg. 2002;97:815–820.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
173.Fernandez Gonzalez, F, Seijo, F, Salvador, C, et al.Applied neurophysiology in the deep brain stimulation treatment of multiple sclerosis tremor. [Spanish] Rev Neurol. 2001;32:559–567.Google Scholar
174.Hooper, J, Taylor, R, Pentland, B, Whittle, IR. A prospective study of thalamic deep brain stimulation for the treatment of movement disorders in multiple sclerosis. Br J Neurosurg. 2002;16:102–109.Google Scholar
175.Hooper, J, Whittle, IR. Costs of thalamic deep brain stimulation for movement disorders in patients with multiple sclerosis. Br J Neurosurg. 2003;17:40–45.Google Scholar
176.Nandi, D, Chir, M, Liu, X, et al.Electrophysiological confirmation of the zona incerta as a target for surgical treatment of disabling involuntary arm movements in multiple sclerosis: use of local field potentials. J Clin Neurosci. 2002;9:64–68.Google Scholar
177.Schulder, M, Semas, T, Mahalick, D, Adler, R, Cook, S. Thalamic stimulation in patients with multiple sclerosis. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1999;72:196–201.Google Scholar
178.Nandi, D, Aziz, TZ. Deep brain stimulation in the management of neuropathic pain and multiple sclerosis tremor. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21:31–39.Google Scholar
179.Foote, KD, Okun, MS. Ventralis intermedins plus ventralis oralis anterior and posterior deep brain stimulation for posttraumatic Holmes tremor: two leads may be better than one: technical note. Neurosurgery. 2005;56(2 suppl):E445.Google Scholar
180.Foote, KD, Seignourel, P, Fernandez, HH, et al.Dual electrode thalamic deep brain stimulation for the treatment of posttraumatic and multiple sclerosis tremor.Neurosurgery. 2006;58(4 suppl 2):ONS-280–285.Google Scholar
181.Moniz, E. Prefrontal leucotomy in the treatment of mental disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1937;93:1379–1385.Google Scholar
182.Kramer, M. The 1951 survey of the use of psychosurgery. In: Mettler, FA, Overholster, W, eds. Proceedings of The Third Research Conference on Psychosurgery. Washington, DC: US Govt Printing Offc, 1954;159–168. USPHS publication 221.Google Scholar
183.Kopell, BH, Greenberg, B, Rezai, AR. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21:51–67.Google Scholar
184.Mayberg, HS, Lozano, AM, Voon, V, et al.Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Neuron. 2005;45:651–660.Google Scholar
185.Temel, Y, Visser-Vandewalle, V. Surgery in Tourette syndrome. Mov Disord. 2004;19:3–14.Google Scholar
186.Diederich, NJ, Kalteis, K, Stamenkovic, M, Pieri, V, Alesch, F. Efficient internal pallidal stimulation in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a case report. Mov Disord. 2005;20:1496–1499.Google Scholar
187.Flaherty, AW, Williams, ZM, Amirnovin, R, et al.Deep brain stimulation of the anterior internal capsule for the treatment of Tourette syndrome: technical case report. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(4 suppl):E403.Google Scholar
188.Nuttin, B, Cosyns, P, Demeulemeester, H, Gybels, J, Meyerson, B. Elecrical stimulation in the anterior limbs of the internal capsules in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Lancet. 1999;354:1526.Google Scholar
189.Houeto, JL, Karachi, C, Mallet, L, et al.Tourette&s syndrome and deep brain stimulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:992–995.Google Scholar
190.Nuttin, BJ, Gabriels, LA, Cosyns, PR, et al.Long-term electrical capsular stimulation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurosurgery. 2003;52:1263–1274.Google Scholar
191.Anderson, D, Ahmed, A. Treatment of patients with intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder with anterior capsular stimulation. J Neurosurg. 2003;98:1104–1108.Google Scholar
192.Abelson, JL, Curtis, GC, Sagher, O, et al.Deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:510–516.Google Scholar
193.Cummings, JL, Frankel, M. Gilles de la tourette syndrome and the neurological basis of obsessions and compulsions. Biol Psychiary. 1985;20:117–1126.Google Scholar
194.Coffey, BJ, Miguel, EC, Jenike, MA. Tourette's disorder with and without obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults: are they different? J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998;186:201–206.Google Scholar
195.Singer, HS. Neurobiology of Tourette syndrome. Neurol Clin. 1997;15:357–379.Google Scholar
196.Muller, N, Putz, A, Kathmann, N, Lehle, R, Gunther, W, Straube, A. Characteristics of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in Tourette's syndrome, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and Parkinson's disease. Psychiatry Res. 1997;70:105–114.Google Scholar
197.Saint-Cyr, JA, Taylor, AE, Nicholson, K. Behavior and the basal ganglia. Adv Neurol. 1995;65:1–28.Google Scholar
198.Papez, JW. A proposed mechanism of emotion. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1937;38:725–743.Google Scholar
199.Modell, JG, Moutnz, JM, Curtis, GC, Greden, JF. Neurophysiologic dysfunction in basal ganglia/limbic striatal and thalamocortical circuits as a pathogenetic mechanism of obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Psychiatry. 1989;1:27–36.Google Scholar
200.Breiter, HC, Rauch, SL, Kwong, KK, et al.Functional magnetic resonance imaging of symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53:595–606.Google Scholar
201.Alexander, GE, Crutcher, MD, DeLong, MR. Basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: parallell substrates for motor, oculomotor, “preforntal”, and “limbic” functions. Prog Brain Res. 1990;85:119–146.Google Scholar
202.Alexander, GE, DeLong, MR, Strick, PL. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1986;9:357–381.Google Scholar
203.Goldapple, K, Segal, Z, Garson, C, Lau, M, Bielling, P, Kennedy, S, Mayberg, H. Modulation of cortical-limbic pathways in major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61:34–41.Google Scholar
204.Greenberg, BD, Price, LH, Rauch, SL, et al.Neurosurgery for intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression: criticial issues. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2003;14:199–212.Google Scholar
205.Kihlstrom, L, Hindmarsh, T, Lax, I, Lippitz, B, Mindus, P, Lindquist, C. Radiosurgical lesions in the normal human brain 17 years after gamma knife capsulotomy. Neurosurgery. 1997;4:395–401.Google Scholar
206.Schmidek, HH, Sweet, WH, eds. Operative Neurosurgical Techniques: Indications, Methods, and Results. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Penn: Saunders. 1995;1443–1454.Google Scholar
207.Knight, G. Stereotactic tractotomy in the surgical treatment of mental illness. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1965;28:304–310.Google Scholar
208.Mitchell-Heggs, N, Kelly, D, Richardson, A. Stereotactic limbic leucotomy—a follow-up at 16 months. Br J Psychiatry. 1976;128:226–240.Google Scholar
209.Whitty, CW, Duffield, JE, Tov, PM, Cairns, H. Antterior cingulectomy in the treatment of mental disease. Lancet. 1952;1:475–481.Google Scholar
210.Ballantine, HT, Cassidy, WL, Flanagan, NB, Marino, R. Stereotactic anterior cingulotomy for neuropsychiatric illness and intractable pain. J Neurosurg. 1967;26:488–495.Google Scholar
211.Okun, MS, Bowers, D, Springer, U, et al.What's in a “smile?” Intra-operative observations of contralateral smiles induced by deep brain stimulation. Neurocase. 2004;10:271–279.Google Scholar
212.Benabid, AL, Minotti, L, Koudsie, A, de Saint martin, A, Hirsch, E. Antiepileptic effect of high-frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (corpus luysi) in a case of medically intractable epilepsy caused by focal dysplasia: a 30-month follow-up: technical case report. Neurosurgery. 2002;50:1385–1391.Google Scholar
213.Hodaie, M, Wennberg, RA, Dostrovsky, JO, Lozano, AM. Chronic anterior thalamus stimulation for intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2002;43:603–608.Google Scholar
214.Velasco, F, Velasco, M, Velasco, AL, Jimenez, F, Marquez, I, Rise, M. Electrical stimulation of the centromedian thaiamic nucleus in control of seizures: long-term studies. Epilepsia. 1995;36:63–71.Google Scholar
215.Bittar, RG, Kar-Purkayastha, I, Owen, SL, et al.Deep brain stimulation for pain relief: a meta-analysis. J Clin Neurosci. 2005;12:515–519.Google Scholar
216.Kleiner-Fisman, G, Fisman, DN, Kahn, Fl, Sime, E, Lozano, AM, Lang, AE. Motor cortical stimulation for parkinsonism in multiple system atrophy. Arch Neurol. 2003;60:1554–1558.Google Scholar
217.Katayama, Y, Fukaya, C, Hamamoto, T. Poststroke pain control by chronic motor cortext stimulation: neurological characteristics predicting a favorable repsonse. J Neurosurg. 1998;89:585–591.Google Scholar
218.Nguyen, JP, Lefaucher, JP, Le Guerinel, C, et al.Motor cortex stimulation in the treatment of cetnral and neuropathic pain. Arch Med Res. 2000;31:263–265.Google Scholar
219.Canavero, S, Bonicalzi, V. Therapeuetic extradural cortical stimulation for central and neuropathic pain: a review. Clin J Pain. 2002;18:48–55.Google Scholar
220.Lang, AE, Widner, H. Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: patient selection and evaluation. Mov Disord. 2002;17(suppl 3):S94–S101.Google Scholar
221.Okun, MS, Tagliati, M, Pourfar, M, et al.Management of referred deep brain stimulation failures: a retrospective analysis from 2 movement disorders centers. Arch Neurol. 2005;62:1250–1255.Google Scholar