Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T16:26:35.868Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mental Health Care for Ethnic Minority Individuals and Communities in the Aftermath of Disasters and Mass Violence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Fran H. Norris  and
Margarita Alegria
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Findings from research on psychiatric epidemiology, disaster effects, discrepancies in service use, and cross-cultural psychology are reviewed to generate guidelines for culturally responsive postdisaster interventions. Ethnicity and culture influence mental health care at various points: on need for help; on availability and accessibility of help; on help-seeking comfort (stigma, mistrust), and on the probability that help is provided appropriately. There are aspects of disaster mental health practice that may ameliorate many of barriers that contribute to ethnic disparities in service use. It is proposed that interventions should give greater attention to socially engaged emotions and functioning. To promote disaster recovery, practitioners are advised to: assess community needs early and often; provide easily accessible services; work collaboratively and proactively to reduce stigma and mistrust and engage minorities in care; validate and normalize distress and help-seeking; value interdependence as well as independence as an appropriate developmental goal; promote community action; and advocate for, facilitate, or conduct treatment and evaluation research. Notwithstanding the pain and stress they cause, disasters create opportunities to de-stigmatize mental health needs and build trust between providers and minority communities.

Type
Review Article
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , February 2005 , pp. 132 - 140
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity—A Supplement to Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General; 2001.Google Scholar
2.Norris, F, Friedman, M, Watson, P, Byrne, C, Diaz, E, Kaniasty, K, 60,000 disaster victims speak, Part I: An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001. Psychiatry. 2002;65:207–239.Google Scholar
3.Holzer, C, Copeland, C. Race, ethnicity, and the epidemiology of mental disorders in adults. In: Cuéllar, I, Paniagua, F, eds. Handbook of Multicultural Mental Health. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press; 2000:341–357.Google Scholar
4.Kessler, R, Berglund, P, Demler, O, et al.The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA. 2003;289:3095–3105.Google Scholar
5.Takeuchi, D, Chung, R, Lin, K, et al.Lifetime and twelve-month prevalence rates of major depressive episodes and dysthymis among Chinese Americans in Los Angeles. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155:1407–1414.Google Scholar
6.Vega, W, Kolody, B, Aguilar-Gaxiola, S, Alderette, E, Catalano, R, Caraveo-Anduaga, J. Lifetime prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders among urban and rural Mexican Americans in California. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:771–778.Google Scholar
7.Solomon, S, Canino, G. The appropriateness of DSM-III-R criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 1990;31:227–237.Google Scholar
8.Kessler, R, Somnega, A, Bromet, E, Hughes, M, Nelson, C. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52:1048–1060.Google Scholar
9.Norris, F. Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1992;60:409–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.Norris, F, Foster, J, Weisshaar, D. The epidemiology of sex differences in PTSD across developmental, societal, and research contexts. In: Kimerling, R, Oimette, P, Wolfe, J, eds. Gender and PTSD. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2002:3–42.Google Scholar
11.Norris, F, Murphy, A, Baker, C, Perilla, J, Gutierrez-Rodriguez, F, Gutierrez-Rodriguez, J. Epidemiology of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in Mexico. J Abnorm Psychol. 2003;112:646–656.Google Scholar
12.Ortega, A, Rosenheck, R. Posttraumatic stress disorder among Hispanic Vietnam veterans. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:615–619.Google Scholar
13.National Center for American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research. Matsunaga Vietnam Veterans Project: Final Report. White River Junction, VT: National Center for PTSD; 1997.Google Scholar
14.Beals, J, Manson, SM, Shore, JH, et al.The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder among American Indian Vietnam veterans: disparities and context. J Trauma Stress. 2002;15:89–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Friedman, MJ, Schnurr, PP, Sengupta, A, Holmes, T, Ashcraft, M. The Hawaii Vietnam Veterans Project: is minority status a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder? J Nerv Ment Dis. 2004;192:42–50.Google Scholar
16.Breslau, N, Kessler, R, Chilcoat, H, Schulz, L, Davis, G, Andreski, P. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: The 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:626–632.Google Scholar
17.Osofsky, JD. Community-based approaches to violence prevention. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1997;18:405–407.Google Scholar
18.Srinivasan, S, Guillermo, T. Toward improved health: disaggregating Asian American and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander data. Am J Public Health. 2000;90:1731–1734.Google Scholar
19.Alegria, M, McGuire, T. Rethinking a universal framework in the psychiatric symptom-disorder relationship. J Health Soc Behav. 2003;44:257–274.Google Scholar
20.Norris, FH, Weisshaar, DL, Conrad, ML, Diaz, EM, Murphy, AD, Ibañez, GE. A qualitative analysis of PTSD symptoms among Mexican victims of disaster. J Trauma Stress. 2001;14:741–756.Google Scholar
21.Zheng, YP, Lin, KM, Takeuchi, D, Kurasaki, KS, Wang, Y, Cheung, F. An epidemiologic study of neurasthenia in Chinese-Americans in Los Angeles. Compr Psychiatry. 1997;38:249–259.Google Scholar
22.Guarnaccia, PJ, Canino, G, Rubio-Stipec, M, Bravo, M. The prevalence of ataques de nervios in the Puerto Rico disaster study. The role of culture in psychiatric epidemiology. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1993;181:157–165.Google Scholar
23.Galea, S, Ahern, J, Resnick, H, et al.Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:982–987.Google Scholar
24.Schuster, MA, Stein, BD, Jaycox, L, et al.A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1507–1512.Google Scholar
25.Thiel de Bocanegra, H, Brickman, E. Mental health impact of the World Trade Center attacks on displaced Chinese workers. J Trauma Stress. 2004;17:55–62.Google Scholar
26.Perilla, J, Norris, F, Lavizzo, E. Ethnicity, culture, and disaster response: identifying and explaining ethnic differences in PTSD six months after Hurricane Andrew. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2002;21:28–45.Google Scholar
27.Stamm, B, Friedman, M. Cultural diversity in the appraisal and expression of trauma exposure. In: Shalev, A, Yehuda, R, McFarlane, A, eds. International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 2000:69–85.Google Scholar
28.Stamm, B, Stamm, H, Hudnall, A, Higson-Smith C. Considering a theory of cultural trauma and loss. Journal of Loss and Trauma. 2004;9:89–111.Google Scholar
29.Palinkas, LA, Downs, MA, Petterson, JS, Russell, J. Social, cultural, and psychological impacts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Hum Organ. 1993;52:1–13.Google Scholar
30.Norris, F, Kaniasty, K, Inman, G, Conrad, L, Murphy, A. Placing age differences in cultural context: a comparison of the effects of age on PTSD after disasters in the U.S., Mexico, and Poland [special issue]. J Clin Geropsychology. 2002;8:153–173.Google Scholar
31.Norris, F, Perilla, J, Ibañez, G, Murphy, A. Sex differences in symptoms of post-traumatic stress: Does culture play a role? J Trauma Stress. 2001;14:7–28.Google Scholar
32.Webster, R, McDonald, R, Lewin, T, Carr, V. Effects of a natural disaster on immigrants and host population. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1995;183:390–397.Google Scholar
33.Vega, W, Alegria, M. Latino mental health and treatment in the United States. In: Aguirre-Molina, M, Molina, C, Zambrana, R, eds. Health Issues in the Latino Community. San Francisco, Calif: Jossey-Bass Publishers; 2001:179–208.Google Scholar
34.Koenen, K, Goodwin, R, Struening, E, Hellman, F, Guardino, M. Posttraumatic stress disorder and treatment seeking in a national screening sample. J Trauma Stress. 2003;16:5–16.Google Scholar
35.Hargraves, JL, Hadley, J. The contribution of insurance coverage and community resources to reducing racial/ethnic disparities in access to care. Health Serv Res. 2003;38:809–829.Google Scholar
36.Borowsky, SJ, Rubenstein, LV, Meredith, LS, Camp, P, Jackson-Triche, M, Wells, KB. Who is at risk of nondetection of mental health problems in primary care? J Gen Intern Med. 2000;15:381–388.Google Scholar
37.Castaneda, DM. A research agenda for Mexican-American adolescent mental health. Adolescence. 1994;29:225–239.Google Scholar
38.Sue, S, Fujino, DC, Hu, LT, Takeuchi, DT, Zane, NW. Community mental health services for ethnic minority groups: a test of the cultural responsiveness hypothesis. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1991;59:533–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Kaniasty, K, Norris, FH. Help-seeking comfort and the receipt of help: the roles of context and ethnicity. Am J Community Psychol. 2000;28:545–581.Google Scholar
40.Allen, I. PTSD among African Americans. In: Marsella, A, Friedman, M, Gerrity, E, Scurfield, R, eds. Ethnocultural Aspects of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Issues, Research, and Clinical Application. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1996:209–238.Google Scholar
41.Cooper-Patrick, L, Powe, NR, Jenckes, MW, Gonzales, JJ, Levine, DM, Ford, DE. Identification of patient attitudes and preferences regarding treatment of depression. J Gen Intern Med. 1997;12:431–438.Google Scholar
42.Hodgkinson, P, Stewart, M. Coping with Catastrophe: A Handbook of Post-disaster Psychosocial Aftercare. 2nd ed. London, UK: Routledge; 1998.Google Scholar
43.Norris, F, Hamblen, J, Watson, P, et al.Understanding and creating systems of postdisaster care: a case study of New York's mental health system's response to the World Trade Center disaster. In: Ritchie, C, Watson, P, Friedman, M, eds. Mental Health Intervention Following Disasters or Mass Violence. New York, NY: Guilford Press; sIn press.Google Scholar
44.Felton, C. Project Liberty: a public health response to New Yorkers' mental health needs arising from the World Trade Center terrorist attacks. J Urban Health. 2002;79:429–433.Google Scholar
45.Zoellner, LA, Feeny, NC, Fitzgibbons, LA, Foa, EB. Response of African American and Caucasian women to cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD. Behav Ther. 1999;30:581–595.Google Scholar
46.Kataoka, SH, Stein, BD, Jaycox, LH, et al.A school-based mental health program for traumatized Latino immigrant children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42:311–318.Google Scholar
47.Strakowski, SM, Hawkins, JM, Keck, PE Jr, et al.The effects of race and information variance on disagreement between psychiatric emergency service and research diagnoses in first-episode psychosis. J Clin Psychiatry. 1997;58:457–463.Google Scholar
48.Wang, PS, Bergland, P, Kessler, RC. Recent care of common mental disorders in the United States: prevalence and conformance with evidence-based recommendations. J Gen Intern Med. 2000;15:284–292.Google Scholar
49.Young, AS, Klap, R, Sherbourne, CD, Wells, KB. The quality of care for depression and anxiety disorders in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:55–61.Google Scholar
50.Melfi, CA, Croghan, TW, Hanna, MP, Robinson, RL. Racial variation in antidepressant treatment in a Medicaid population. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61:16–21.Google Scholar
51.Segel, SP, Bola, JR, Watson, MA. Race, quality of care, and antipsychotic prescribing practices in psychiatric emergency services. Psychiatr Serv. 1996;47:282–286.Google Scholar
52.Sue, S. In search of cultural competence in psychotherapy and counseling. Am Psychol. 1998;53:440–448.Google Scholar
53.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
54.American Psychological Association. Guidelines for providers of psychological services to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse populations. Am Psychol. 1993;48:45–48.Google Scholar
55.Nader, K, Dubrow, N, Stamm, B. Honoring Differences: Cultural Issues in the Treatment of Trauma and Loss. Philadelphia, Penn: Brunner/Mazel; 1999.Google Scholar
56.Draguns, J. Ethnocultural considerations in the treatment of PTSD: therapy and service delivery. In: Marsella, A, Friedman, M, Gerrity, E, Scurfield, R, eds. Ethnocultural Aspects of PTSD: Issues, Research, and Clinical Applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1996:459–482.Google Scholar
57.Vega, W. Theoretical and pragmatic implications of cultural diversity for community research. Am J Community Psychol. 1992;20:375–392.Google Scholar
58.Kinzie, J. Cross-cultural treatment of PTSD. In: Wilson, J, Friedman, M, Lindy, J, eds. Treating Psychological Trauma and PTSD. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2001:255–277.Google Scholar
59.Kitayama, S, Markus, H, Matsumoto, H. Cullture, self, and emotion: a cultural perspective on “self-conscious” emotions. In: Tangney, J, Fischer, K, eds. Self-conscious Emotions: The Psychology of Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment, and Pride. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1995.Google Scholar
60.Kaniasty, K, Norris, F. Social support dynamics in adjustment to disasters. In: Sarason, B, Duck, S, eds. Personal Relationships: Implications for Clinical and Community Psychology. New York, NY: Wiley; 2001:201–224.Google Scholar
61.Hobfoll, S. Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress. New York, NY: Plenum Publishing; 1998.Google Scholar
62.Norris, FH, Murphy, AD, Baker, CK, Perilla, JL. Severity, timing, and duration of reactions to trauma in the population: an example from Mexico. Biol Psychiatry. 2003; 53:769–778.Google Scholar
63.Lindsey, M, Cuéllar, I. Mental health assessment and treatment of African Americans: a multicultural perspective. In: Cuéllar, I, Paniagua, F, eds. Handbook of Multicultural Mental Health. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press; 2000:195–209.Google Scholar
64.Solomon, S. Introduction. In: Green, B, Friedman, M, de Jong, J, et al, eds. Trauma in War and Peace: Prevention, Practice, and Policy. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers; 2003:3–16.Google Scholar
65.Somasundarum, D, Norris, F, Asukai, N, Murthy, R. In: Green, B, Friedman, M, de Jong, J, et al, eds. Trauma in War and Peace: Prevention, Practice, and Policy. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers; 2003:291–318.Google Scholar
66.Manson, S. Cross-cultural and multiethnic assessment of trauma. In: Wilson, J, Keane, T, eds. Assessing Psychological Trauma and PTSD. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1997:239–266.Google Scholar
67.de Jong, J. Prevention of the consequences of man-made or natural disaster at the international, the community, the family, and the individual level. In: Hobfoll, A, de Vries, M, eds. Extreme Stress and Communities: Impact and Intervention. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer; 1995:207–227.Google Scholar