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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 October 2024
The problem of relations between Church and state has existed from the very beginnings of Christianity and has evolved over centuries. The dominant model today is one of separation between the state and religious communities. In the context of the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican City State remains the only exception to this principle. This article examines the tensions inherent in the way in which the Roman Pontiff, as head of the Vatican City State, exercises both religious and secular power, and how rule of law principles operate to constrain the operation of power as between the various organs of this state.
1 It is worth noting that in recent years there have been several valuable publications containing the legislation that make up the sources of Vatican law by J I Arrieta: Codice penale Vaticano (Roma, 2020), Codice di Norme Vaticane (Roma, 2021), and Codice Vaticano di procedura penale (Roma, 2022).
2 Trattato fra la Santa Sede e l'Italia, Acta Apostolicae Sedis (hereafter: AAS), 21 (1929), 209–274. An English translation of the treaty can be found here: <https://www.rightofassembly.info/assets/downloads/1929_Lateran_Treaty.pdf>, accessed 28 May 2024.
3 Legge sulle fonti del diritto 1 ottobre 2008, AAS, Supplemento per le Leggi e Disposizioni dello Stato della Città del Vaticano (further suppl.) 1 (2009), 131–136.
4 Legge sulle fonti del diritto 7 giugno 1929, AAS. Suppl. 21(1929), 5–13.
5 J M Seranno Luiz, In vigore la nuova legge sulle fonti dei diritto, ‘L'Osservatore Romano’, 31 December 2008, 7.
6 A Sarais, Le fonti del diritto vaticano (Citta del Vaticano, 2011), 147.
7 Arrieta, J I ‘La nuova legge vaticana sulle fonti del diritto’ (2009) 1 Ius Ecclesiae 236, 231–242Google Scholar.
8 In this context, it is worth pointing out, in particular, the Act of 11 July 2013 n VIII – Legge recante norme complementari in materia penale (Law on Supplementary Rules in Criminal Matters), AAS Suppl. 20 (2013), 77–108 on certain criminal law norms. This provides for the penalisation of offences such as the exploitation of children for prostitution; sexual violence against children; sexual acts with children; and child pornography.
9 The mechanism provided for in Art 9 of the 2008 Law on Sources of Law is the equivalent of Art 23 of the Law of 1929, which was inspired by Canon 19 of 1917 Code of Canon Law.
10 Codex Iuris Canonici. Pii X Pontificis Maximi iussu digestus, Benedicti Papae XV auctoritate promulgatus, AAS 9 (1917), pars II, pp 1–521 (hereafter: CIC/17).
11 Codex Iuris Canonici. Auctoritate Ioannis Pauli PP. II promulgatus, AAS 75 (1983), pars II. Appendix (hereafter: CIC/83).
12 See Caviogioli, G, Manuale di Diritto Canonico. Seconda edizione (Torino, 1939), 229–230Google Scholar.
13 See Cenalmor, D and Miras, J, El Derecho de la Iglesia: Curso básico de Derecho Canónico (Navvara, 2021), 224–225Google Scholar.
14 Krukowski, J and Sobański, R, Komentarz do Kodeksu Prawa Kanonicznego, Tom 1. Księga 1. Normy ogólne, (Poznań, 2003), 45Google Scholar.
15 Gherri, P, ‘L'ordinamento canonico: norme e strutture’ in Arroba Conde, M J (ed.), Manuale di Diritto Canonico (Città del Vaticano, 2014), 54–55Google Scholar.
16 Errázuriz, C J, Justice in the Church. A Fundamental Theory of Canon Law (Milan, 2009), 191–192Google Scholar. A clear example of this is the participation of the lay faithful in the collegiate bodies created in the diocese of the Catholic Church, i.e. the council for economic affairs and the council for pastoral affairs.
17 See Pinto, P V, Diritto amministrativo canononico. La Chiesa: ministero e instituzione (Bologna, 2006), 117–119Google Scholar.
18 Krukowski, J, Administracja w Kościele. Zarys kościelnego prawa administracyjnego (Lublin, 1985), 59–60Google Scholar.
19 A Interguglielmi, I decreti singolari nell'esercizio della potesta’ amministrativa della chiesa particolare. Studio giuridico-pratico sulla potesta’ amministrativa del vescovo diocesano con schemi di decreto (Città del Vaticano, 2012), 29–30.
20 J Hahn, ‘The Power of the Law – the Law of Power: On the Significance of Canon Law for Issues of Power in the Church’ (2020) 2 Concilium. Politics, Theology and the Meaning of Power 58.
21 See P Skonieczny, ‘Potestas sacra według Klausa Mörsdorfa – założenia teologiczne, struktura, sposób przekazywania i charakter’ (2013) 9 Annales Canonici 18.
22 Arrieta, J I, Corso di Diritto Vaticano (Roma, 2021), 176–177Google Scholar.
23 Legge fondamentale dello Stato della Città del Vaticano (13 May 2023), <https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/it/motu_proprio/documents/20230513-legge-fond-scv.html>, accessed 10 April 2024.
24 Z Grocholewski, ‘Zasady inspirujące Księgę VII “de processibus” KPK’ (1999) 4 Ius Matrimoniale 155.
25 This rule was changed by the judicial rules of procedure of 1946.
26 See G Dalla Torre, ‘L'indipendenza della giustizia vaticana Note sui magistrati addetti al Tribunale’ (2019), Stato, Chiese e pluralismo confessionale. Rivista telematica (www.statoechiese.it), 25, 28.
27 Francesco, Lettera Apostolica in forma di <motu proprio> recante modifiche alla Legge sull'ordinamento giudiziario, alla Legge recante disposizioni per la dignità professionale e il trattamento economico dei magistrati ordinari del Tribunale e dell'Ufficio del Promotore di giustizia e al Regolamento Generale del Fondo Pensioni, <https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/it/motu_proprio/documents/20240327-motu-proprio.html>, accessed 23 May 2024.
28 See for example Art 18 § 1 Decreto della Pontificia Commissione per lo Stato della Città del Vaticano con il quale è promulgato Regolamento Generale per il personale del Governatorato dello Stato della Città del Vaticano (21 November 2010), AAS suppl. 24 (2010), 93–164,
29 See C Ventrella, ‘La Corte d'appello dello Stato della Città del Vaticano e alcuni aspetti della sua competenza in materia disciplinare’ (2017) 2 Diritto e Religioni 268.
30 Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, <https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/justpeace/documents/rc_pc_justpeace_doc_20060526_compendio-dott-soc_en.html>, accessed 27 April 2024.
31 See M Burnay, Chinese Perspectives on the International Rule of Law Law and Politics in the One-Party State (Leuven, 2018), 11–44.
32 M Koskenniemi, ‘Imagining the Rule of Law: Rereading the Grotian “Tradition”’ (2019) 1 European Journal of International Law 30.
33 See A M Kuskowski, ‘The Time of Custom and the Medieval Myth of Ancient Customary Law’ (2024) 1 Speculum 163.
34 B Z Tamanaha, ‘The History and Elements of the Rule of Law’ (2012) Singapore Journal of Legal Studies 237–239.
35 See B Z Tamanaha, On the Rule of Law. History, Politics, Theory (Cambridge, 2004), 114–126.
36 J Filipkowski, ‘Praworządność’, in Encyklopedia Katolicka, vol. 16 (Lublin, 2012), coll 316–317.
37 A Sarais, ‘La legislazione penale vaticana: principi e linee evolutive, anche in raffronto al diritto canonico’ (2014) 1–2 Il Diritto Ecclesiastico 305.
38 D Melkonyan, ‘Concept of the rule of law in the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights’ in G Ghanizyan and A Haykyants and Y Kirakosyan (eds), Materials of Conference Devoted to 80th Anniversary of the Faculty of Law of the Yerevan State University (Yerevan, 2014), 340.
39 Benedict XVI, Allocutiones ad delegatos Nationum Unitarum, <https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/speeches/2008/april/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20080418_un-visit.html>, accessed 1 October 2023.
40 S F Fischer, ‘Catholic Social Teaching, The Rule of Law, and Copyright Protection’ (2009) 1 Journal of Law, Philosophy and Culture 66.
41 See J Carlos and M Erràzuriz, Corso fondamentale sul diritto nella Chiesa. Introduzione i soggetti ecclesiali di diritto (Milano, 2009), 132.
42 Intervention of the Holy See at the 63rd session of the UN General Assembly on ‘The rule of law at the national and international levels’, statement by HE Archbishop Celestino Migliore, permanent observer of the Holy See, New York, Tuesday 14 October 2008, <https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/2008/documents/rc_seg-st_20081014_rule-of-law_en.html>, accessed 27 April 2024.
43 P Sadowski, Il principio di legalità nel diritto penale canonico (Roma, 1999), typescript held by the Library of the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, 86.
44 Meeting with the Members of the General Assembly of The United Nations Organization, Address of the Holy Father, United Nations Headquarters, New York, Friday 25 September 2015,
<https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2015/september/documents/papa-francesco_20150925_onu-visita.html>, accessed 27 April 2024.
45 G Dalla Torre, Lezioni di diritto vaticano (Torino, 2018), 51, 77.
46 Arrieta (note 22), 174.
47 See G Boni, ‘Il diritto penale della Città del Vaticano. Evoluzioni giurisprudenziali’ in G Dalla Torre and G Boni, Il diritto penale vaticano. Evoluzioni giurisprudenziali (Torino, 2014), 98–99.
48 See F Caponnetto, ‘In margine al deficit di “tassatività” nel diritto penale vaticano e confronto con altre esperienze giuridiche’ in R Granata and FS Rea (eds), Diritto vaticano e diritto secolare. Autonomia e rinvii tra ordinamenti giuridici (Stato della Città del Vaticano, 2020), 18; P A Bonnet, ‘Lo spirito del diritto penale vaticano’ (2015) 2 Ephemerides Iuris Canonici 352.
49 See Sarais (note 37), 304–305.
50 Dalla Torre (note 45), 54–55.
51 A Vitalone, ‘Il Pontefice sovrano dello Stato della Città del Vaticano’ (2007) 1 Diritto e Religioni 332.
52 Cammeo, F, Ordinamento giuridico dello Stato della Città del Vaticano. Ristampa anastatica 1932 (Stato della Città del Vaticano, 2005), 78–79Google Scholar.