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3 Parsons, Steve B. & Bixby, James, Universal Service in the United States: A Focus on Mobile Communications, 62 Fed. Comm. L.J. 119, 133–34 (2010); Charles Wolf, Markets or Governments: Choosing Between Imperfect Alternatives (2d ed. 1988); Ronald H. Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, 3 J.L. & Econ. 1, 34 (1960).Google Scholar

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5 Cf. Nenova, Mira B., The New Concept of Universal Service in a Digital Networked Communications Environment, (2007) 3 J.L. & Pol'y Info. Soc'y 117, 131–32 (2010) available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1120282 and http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1120282 (last visited July 23, 2013) (The major justifications of “public intervention in the economy [are], in particular[,] market failures and redistributive considerations.”).Google Scholar

6 Fed. Commc'ns Comm'n, Connecting America: the National Broadband Plan 21 (2010) available at http://www.broadband.gov/download-plan/ (last visited July 23, 2013) (“The desire for equal opportunity has long guided our efforts to make access to technologies universal, from electricity to telephony, from television to radio.”).Google Scholar

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8 Cf. Nenova, supra note 5, at 131–32 (Universal service contributes to the achievement of the following objectives: “(i) internalization of network externalities; (ii) redistribution between users (of different locations and/or income groups); and (iii) the realization of some public goods (such as an all-encompassing communications network).”).Google Scholar

9 For a detailed analysis see Parsons & Bixby, supra note 3, at 133–41.Google Scholar

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11 See Alan McKenna, A Human Right to Participate in the Information Society (2011).Google Scholar

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16 See Christopher H. Sterling, Phyllis W. Bernt & Martin B.H. Weiss, Shaping American Telecommunications: A History of Technology, Policy, and Economics 197 (2006); Milton L. Mueller, Universal Service: Competition, Interconnection, and Monopoly in the Making of the American Telephone System 101 (1997); Gamham, Universal Service, in Telecom Reform: Principles, Policies and Regulatory Practices 200 (William H. Melody ed., 1997) (Universal service was “mobilised as an attempted defence of the telephone monopoly.”).Google Scholar

17 Helmuth Cremer, Farid Gasmi, André Grimaud & Jean-Jacques Laffont, The Economics of Universal Service: Practice 1 (1998), available at http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/64601/practice.pdf (last visited July 23, 2013); Nenova, supra note 5, at 121.Google Scholar

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19 See Fabrizio Cugia di Sant'Orsola, Universal Service Obligation: Oh Dear, I Shall Be Late! Said the White Rabbit, 4 Convergence 31, 34 (2008).Google Scholar

20 See, e.g., U.S. Postal Serv., Universal Service and the Postal Monopoly: A Brief History (2008), available at http://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/universal-service-postal-monopoly-history.pdf (last visited July 23, 2013); U.S. Postal Serv., Report On Universal Postal Service and The Postal Monopoly (2008), available at http://about.usps.com/universal-postal-service/usps-uso-report.pdf (last visited July 23, 2013).Google Scholar

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25 Young, supra note 18, at 191–92. As to the social considerations see Harmeet Sawhney, Universal Service: Prosaic Motives and Great Ideals, 38 J. Broad. & Elec. Media 375, 380 (1994); Brian Regan, Ushering Universal Service Reform: Politically Feasible Legislative Principles, 16 CommLaw Conspectus 471 (2008).Google Scholar

26 See Marshall, Thomas H., Citizenship and Social Class (1950); Paschal Preston & Roderick Flynn, Rethinking Universal Service: Citizenship, Consumption Norms, and the Telephone, 16 Info. Soc'y 91, 95 (2006). For a criticism on the theoretical foundations of universal service see Mueller, supra note 16.Google Scholar

27 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 7, ¶ 50.Google Scholar

28 See Nenova, supra note 5, at 131, 134–36.Google Scholar

29 Mainly but not exclusively: Universal service also embraces directory enquiry services and directories (Article 5), public pay telephones (Article 6) and special measures for disabled users (Article 7).Google Scholar

30 Council Directive 2002/22, supra note 13, art. 3(1), at 59.Google Scholar

31 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 1, at 3. See Council Directive 2002/22, supra note 13, ¶ 8, at 52.Google Scholar

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33 Cf. Nenova, supra note 5, at 137 (“[C]ommunications should be thought of not only as ‘transmission systems', but also in terms of their special role as channels carrying and disseminating information and content.”).Google Scholar

34 See Eur. Comm'n, supra note 1, at 7–9.Google Scholar

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36 Id. ¶ 3.3.Google Scholar

37 Id. Google Scholar

38 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 15, at 9; Eur. Comm'n, supra note 1, at 7.Google Scholar

39 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 1, at 4.Google Scholar

40 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 15, at 12.Google Scholar

41 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 1, at 4–5.Google Scholar

42 Id. at 3.Google Scholar

43 Fed.-State Joint Bd. on Universal Serv., 97 FCC Rcd. 157, §§ VII-XI (1997). For a description of the operation of the above mechanisms, see Regan, supra note 25, at 471–502.Google Scholar

44 See Frieden, Rob, Killing with Kindness: Fatal Flaws in the $6.5 Billion Universal Service Funding Mission and What Should be Done to Narrow the Digital Divide, 24 Cardozo Arts & Ent. L.J. 447 (2006).Google Scholar

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48 47 U.S.C. § 254(c)(1) (2012).Google Scholar

49 Id. Google Scholar

50 The above enumeration does not follow the structure established by the FCC but presents the elements of universal service in a scheme more familiar to Europeans. This implies some necessary simplification.Google Scholar

51 Fed.-State Joint Bd. on Universal Serv., 97 FCC Rcd. 157, ¶ 22 (1997).Google Scholar

52 Id. ¶¶ 26–27, 46–48; Alenco Commc'ns, Inc. v. FCC, 201 F.3d 608 (5th Cir. 2000).Google Scholar

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54 Fed.-State Joint Bd. on Universal Serv., 97 FCC Rcd. 157, ¶ 83 (1997).Google Scholar

55 Id. Google Scholar

56 Fed.-State Joint Bd. on Universal Serv., 03 FCC Rcd. 170, ¶¶ 9–11 (2003), available at http://www.universalservice.org/_res/documents/about/pdf/fcc-orders/2003-fcc-orders/FCC-03-170.pdf (last visited July 23, 2013). For an analysis of universal service from the perspective of mobile communications, see Parsons & Bixby, supra note 3.Google Scholar

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61 47 U.S.C. § 1305(k)(2) (2012).Google Scholar

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67 Council Directive 2009/72, 2009 O.J. (L211) 55 (EC).Google Scholar

68 Council Directive 2003/54, 2003 O.J. (L176) 37 (EC).Google Scholar

69 The right to be connected is not restricted to household customers; distribution companies are obliged to connect all customers to the network. According to Article 2(7), the term “customer” includes both wholesale and final customers. Council Directive 2009/72, supra note 67, art. 2(7), at 63.Google Scholar

70 See Council Directive 2009/72, supra note 67, art. 3(3), at 64.Google Scholar

71 Id. The general deadline for implementation of Directive 2009/72 was March 3, 2011. It replaced Directive 2003/54, which defined the scope of electricity universal service in Article 3(3) in the same way. Cf. Cremer, Gasmi, Grimaud & Laffont, supra note 17, at 7. On the scope of universal service in EU electricity law see Thomas von Danwitz, Regulation and Liberalization of the European Electricity Market—A German View, 27 Energy L.J. 423, 438–39 (2006); EURELECTRIC, Report on Public Service Obligations 12–13 (2004), available at http://www.google.hu/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CEAQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurelectric.org%2FDownload%2FDownload.aspx%3FDocumentID%3D14841&ei=P1QaUNDRENHgtQbZ5IGYBg&usg=AFQjCNEC4yM8VhSA9UW7p1DHFRnGJhaaxw (last visited July 23, 2013).Google Scholar

72 See Cameron, Peter D., Completing the Internal Market in Energy: An Introduction to the New Legislation, in Legal Aspects of EU Energy Regulation 25, ¶ 2.48 (Peter D. Cameron ed., 2005).Google Scholar

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77 Code de l'énergie [C. Éner.] art. L121-5 (Fr.) (“La mission de fourniture d'électricité consiste à assurer, en favorisant la maîtrise de la demande, la fourniture d'électricité, sur l'ensemble du territoire, aux clients bénéficiaires des tarifs réglementés de vente dans les conditions prévues aux articles L. 337–4 à L. 337–9. L'électricité est fournie par le raccordement aux réseaux publics ou, le cas échéant, par la mise en æuvre des installations de production d'électricité de proximité mentionnées à l'article L. 222.4-33 du code général des collectivités territoriales.”).Google Scholar

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79 Int'l Energy Agency, Energy Policies of IEA Countries: Spain 2009 Review 115 (2009).Google Scholar

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96 Id. ¶¶ 26–32.Google Scholar

97 Id. ¶ 33. For a detailed analysis of the requirement of proportionality, see id. ¶¶ 35–47.Google Scholar

98 Id. ¶ 33.Google Scholar

99 See Pietro Cavasola & Matteo Ciminelli, Italy, in Gas Regulation in 32 Jurisdictions Worldwide 111, 114 (Florence Ninane, Alexandre Ancel & Liliana Eskenazi eds., 2012).Google Scholar

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103 Unfortunately, this fundamental regulatory difference is, in certain instances, not adequately taken into account, creating the deceptive impression that Federutility is directly applicable to the electricity sector. See, e.g., Energy Cmty. Secretariat, Regulated Energy Prices in the Energy Community—-State of Play and Recommendations for Reform 5–6 (2012), available at http://www.energy-community.org/pls/portal/docs/1568177.PDF (last visited July 23, 2013).Google Scholar

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