Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-9pm4c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T21:16:22.827Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

CHILD SOLDIERS AND PEACE AGREEMENTS

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 December 2023

Sean Molloy Open the ORCID record for Sean Molloy [Opens in a new window]
Sean Molloy*
Affiliation:
Newcastle Law School, Newcastle University, Newcastle, United Kingdom
*
Email: sean.molloy@newcastle.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

For societies transitioning from conflict to peace, the phenomenon of child soldiers poses significant challenges. These include quandaries associated with assisting in the reintegration of serving child soldiers, determining how to prevent future recruitment of child soldiers, and pursuing accountability of those who utilize child soldiers. In addition, questions are also raised as to whether and how child soldiers responsible for crimes committed during conflict are to be held to account. While no one mechanism or response can adequately and sufficiently address the multifaceted issues that arise, peace agreements, as foundational documents that serve as the blueprint for peacebuilding and the post-conflict State, can make a useful contribution to some or all of them. Drawing on all references to child soldiers in 77 peace agreements signed between 1990 and 2022, this article examines the ways in which peace agreements address the issue of child soldiers.

Keywords

public international lawhuman rightschild soldierspeace agreementschildren's rightspeace processes
Type
Articles
Information
International & Comparative Law Quarterly , Volume 73 , Issue 1 , January 2024 , pp. 103 - 134
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of British Institute of International and Comparative Law

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Diaz, SJ, ‘An Elusive Mandate: Enforcing the Prohibition on the Use of Child Soldiers’ (2020) 39 ChildLegalRtsJ 263Google Scholar.

2 Vautravers, AJ, ‘Why Child Soldiers are Such a Complex Issue’ (2008) 27 RefugeeSurvQ 96Google Scholar.

3 Joel, ‘Child Soldiers Returned to Families’ (PeaceDirect, 26 February 2009) <https://www.peacedirect.org/child-soldiers/>.

4 Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict (OSRSG CAAC), ‘Questions and Answers on the Recruitment and Use of Child Soldiers’ (6 February 2023) <https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/2023/02/questions-and-answers-on-the-recruitment-and-use-of-child-soldiers2/>.

5 UN General Assembly and UN Security Council, ‘Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’ (23 June 2022) UN Doc A/76/871-S/2022/493 (Report of the Secretary General).

6 UN Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Centre, ‘DDR: Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards. Module 5.20: Children and DDR’ (2019) <https://www.unddr.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/IDDRS-5.20-Children-and-DDR.pdf>.

7 See, eg, K Chapman and H Stevenson Doornbos, Child Soldiers: A Global Recruitment Index (World Vision, 2019) <https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/Child%20Soldiers%20v4_0_0.pdf>.

8 See Section III.C.

9 See Section II.

10 One notable exception is the Checklist for Drafting Children and Armed Conflict Provisions in Ceasefire and Peace Agreements developed by the non-governmental organization Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict. The Checklist was launched during the 71st UN General Assembly's Rights of the Child Days, with the Permanent Missions of Canada and Finland to the UN as co-hosts: Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, ‘Checklist for Drafting Children and Armed Conflict Provisions in Ceasefire and Peace Agreements’ (2016) <https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/Watchlist_ProvisionsChildrenArmedConflict-PeaceAgreements_2016.pdf>.

11 Forster, R, ‘Peace Agreements’ in S Romaniuk, M Thapa and P Marton (eds), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies (Palgrave MacMillan 2019)Google Scholar.

12 See Bell, C, On the Law of Peace: Peace Agreements and the Lex Pacificatoria (OUP 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 J Karreth et al, ‘International Third Parties and the Implementation of Comprehensive Peace Agreements After Civil War’ (2023) 67(2–3) JConflictResol 494, 495–6.

14 C Chinkin, ‘Lecture: Gender, Human Rights, and Peace Agreements’, Schwartz Lecture on Dispute Resolution at The Ohio State University Moritz College of Law (delivered 19 September 2002) 867 <https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/159559967.pdf>.

15 See, eg, C Bell and K Zulueta-Fülscher, Sequencing Peace Agreements and Constitutions in the Political Settlement Process, Policy Paper No 13 (International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance 2016); Ozcelik, A and Olcay, T, ‘(Un)constitutional Change Rooted in Peace Agreements’ (2020) 18 ICON 1373Google Scholar; Nathan, L, ‘The Real Deal? The Post-Conflict Constitution as a Peace Agreement’ (2020) 41 TWQ 1556Google Scholar.

16 Brett, R and McCallin, M, Children: The Invisible Soldiers (RäddaBarnen 1996)Google Scholar.

17 Child Soldiers Coalition, ‘The Rights of Children Used as Soldiers: Good on Paper, Denied in Practice’ (ReliefWeb, 20 November 2003) <https://reliefweb.int/report/world/rights-children-used-soldiers-good-paper-denied-practice>.

18 UN General Assembly, ‘Impact of Armed Conflict on Children: Report of the Expert of the Secretary-General, Ms. Graça Machel, Submitted Pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 48/157’ (26 August 1996) UN Doc A/51/306 (Machel Report) para 62.

19 UN Security Council Res 1314 (2000) (11 August 2000) UN Doc S/RES/1314 (2000), para 11.

20 UN Security Council Res 1379 (2001) (20 November 2001) UN Doc S/RES/1379 (2001), para 8(e).

21 UN Security Council Res 1612 (2005) (26 July 2005) UN Doc S/RES/1612 (2005), para 14.

22 UN Security Council Res 2143 (2014) (7 March 2014) UN Doc S/RES/2143 (2014), para 9.

23 UN Security Council Res 2225 (2015) (18 June 2015) UN Doc S/RES/2225 (2015), para 9.

24 UN Security Council Res 2427 (2018) (9 July 2018) UN Doc S/RES/2427 (2018), paras 3, 22, 23.

25 Happold, M, Child Soldiers in International Law (Manchester University Press 2005) 111–12Google Scholar.

26 Mukhar, R, ‘Child Soldiers and Peace Agreements’ (2014) 20(1) AnnSurvIntl&CompL 73, 74Google Scholar.

27 ibid 87.

28 B Verhey, ‘Child Soldiers: Preventing, Demobilizing and Reintegrating’ (2001) World Bank Africa Region Working Paper Series No 23 <https://people.umass.edu/~educ870/PostConflict/resources/ChildSoldiers-BVerthey.pdf>.

29 Karanja, SK, ‘Child Soldiers in Peace Agreements: The Peace and Justice Dilemma!’ (2008) 8(3) GlobJurist, article 9Google Scholar.

30 ibid.

31 Verhey (n 28) 6.

32 See OSRSG CAAC, Practical Guidance for Mediators to Protect Children in Situations of Armed Conflict (UN, February 2020) <https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/REVISED-19.02.2020-Practical-guidance-for-mediators-to-protect-children-in-situations-of-armed-conflict.pdf>.

33 ibid 17.

34 UN, Operational Guide to the Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards (UN 2014) <https://www.unddr.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Operational-Guide-to-the-IDDRS-2014.pdf>.

35 UN Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Centre (n 6).

36 Karanja (n 29) 8.

37 See, eg, recommendations issued by the Committee to the Central African Republic: Human Rights Committee, ‘Concluding observations on the third periodic report of the Central African Republic’ (30 April 2020) UN Doc CCPR/C/CAF/CO/3, para 29.

38 See, eg, recommendations issue by the Committee to Sri Lanka and Myanmar: Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘Concluding observations on the combined fifth and sixth periodic reports of Sri Lanka’ (2 March 2018) UN Doc CRC/C/LKA/CO/5-6, para 47; Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 44 of the Convention’ (14 March 2012) UN Doc CRC/C/MMR/CO/3-4, para 81.

39 See, eg, recommendations issued to Colombia by Uruguay, Austria and Slovenia: Human Rights Council, ‘Universal Periodic Review, Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review: Colombia’ (9 January 2009) UN Doc A/HRC/10/82, para 19. Also see recommendations issued to South Sudan by the Maldives: Human Rights Council, ‘Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review’ (28 December 2016) UN Doc A/HRC/34/13, para 128.57.

40 Cohn, I, ‘The Protection of Children in Peacemaking and Peacekeeping Processes’ (1999) 12 HarvHumRtsJ 129Google Scholar.

41 N Grossman, ‘Rehabilitation or Revenge: Prosecuting Child Soldiers for Human Rights Violations’ (2006–2007) 38 GeoJIntlL 323, 327.

42 ACCORD, ‘Conflict Trends 2016/2: Understanding the Recruitment of Child Soldiers in Africa’ (16 August 2016) <https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/understanding-recruitment-child-soldiers-africa/>.

43 R Haer and T Böhmelt, ‘The Impact of Child Soldiers on Rebel Groups’ Fighting Capacities’ (2016) 33 ConflictMgmtPeaceSci 153.

44 C Nyamutata, ‘Young Terrorists or Child Soldiers? ISIS Children: International Law and Victimhood’ (2020) 25 JC&SL 237.

45 See Machel Report (n 18) para 36.

46 Report of the Secretary General (n 5).

47 M Wessells, Child Soldiers: From Violence to Protection (Harvard University Press 2006) 144. Also see Briggs, J, Innocents Lost: When Child Soldiers go to War (Basic Books 2005) 4Google Scholar.

48 Angola/Burundi/Central African Republic/Democratic Republic of Congo/Kenya/Republic of Congo/Rwanda/Sudan/Tanzania/Uganda/Zambia (African Great Lakes), Dar-Es-Salaam Declaration on Peace, Security, Democracy and Development in the Great Lakes Region (20 November 2004) preamble.

49 Burundi, Magaliesburg Declaration on the Burundi Peace Process (10 June 2008) 2.

50 DRC, Déclaration de principe des parties aux négociations de Libreville sur la crise Centrafricaine (11 January 2013) art 1.

51 See, eg, Central African Republic, Accord de cessation des hostilités en République Centrafricaine (Brazzaville Agreement on Cessation of Hostilities) (23 July 2014) art 2; Democratic Republic of Congo, Ceasefire Agreement (Lusaka Agreement) (10 July 1999) art 1; South Sudan, Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities, Protection of Civilians and Humanitarian Access, Republic of South Sudan (21 December 2017) art 3.

52 Colombia, Joint Communique #70 (15 May 2016) para 3.

53 Central African Republic, Agreement between the Transitional Government and the armed groups on the principles of disarmament, demobilization, reintegration and repatriation and of integration into the uniformed State forces of the Central African Republic (DDRR Agreement) (10 May 2015) Preamble.

54 Cote d'Ivoire, Accord de Cessez-le-Feu (3 May 2003) para 5.

55 Burundi, Comprehensive Ceasefire Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Burundi and the Palipehutu – FNL (7 September 2006) art 2.

56 Burundi, Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi (28 August 2000) 26–8, Protocol II: Democracy and Good Governance provides, Ch I: Constitutional Principles on the Post-Transitional Constitution, art 3.

57 R Brett, ‘Girl Soldiers: Challenging the Assumptions’ (Quaker United Nations Office 2002) <https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=30b7d6a22daa407421773b47dd485ebf89038561>; R Brett and I Specht, Young Soldiers: Why They Choose to Fight (Lynne Rienner Publishers 2004); S Reich and S Gates, Child Soldiers in the Age of Fractured States (University of Pittsburgh Press 2010); C Downing, ‘Child Recruitment to Illegal Armed Groups in Colombia: Peacebuilding and Development Challenges’ (2014) 9 JPeacebuildingDev 33.

58 L Grétry, ‘Child Soldiers: Our Representation Challenged by Their Reality’ (2011) 31 IntlJSociolSocPol 583, 588.

59 ibid 588.

60 D Somasundaram, ‘Child Soldiers: Understanding the Context’ (2002) 324(7348) BMJ 1268.

61 M Lysyuk, ‘The Responsibility of Child Soldiers for War Crimes’ in Teisinės minties šventė (Mykolo Romerio universitetas 2022) 39 <https://cris.mruni.eu/cris/entities/publication/c5c08b43-b181-499b-b602-decb9844f494/details>.

62 ibid.

63 ibid.

64 G Maio et al, ‘What Are the Drivers of Children's Decision to Enlist in Armed Groups? A Case Study from Antioquia, Colombia’ in J Muraszkiewicz, T Fenton and H Watson (eds), Human Trafficking in Conflict Context, Causes and the Military (Palgrave Macmillan 2020) 102.

65 See Abeb, T, ‘Reconceptualising Children's Agency as Continuum and Interdependence’ (2019) 8 SocSci 81Google Scholar.

66 UN Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Centre (n 6).

67 Lysyuk (n 61).

68 A Almohammad, ‘ISIS Child Soldiers in Syria: The Structural and Predatory Recruitment, Enlistment, Pre-Training Indoctrination, Training, and Deployment’ (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, 19 February 2018) <https://www.icct.nl/publication/isis-child-soldiers-syria-structural-and-predatory-recruitment-enlistment-pre-training>.

69 L Banholzer and Haer, ‘Attaching and Detaching: The Successful Reintegration of Child Soldiers’ (2014) 6 JDevEff 111.

70 Global Coalition for Reintegration of Child Soldiers, Reframing Child Reintegration From Humanitarian Action to Development, Prevention, Peacebuilding and Beyond (2021) 3 <https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Reframing-Child-Reintegration.pdf>.

71 Verhey (n 28).

72 Cohn (n 40) 135.

73 Karanja (n 29).

74 Comoros/Anjouan, General Agreement on National Reconciliation (Fomboni Agreement) (17 February 2001) 3.

75 Mali, Agreement between the Dogon, Dafing and Fulani communities in the communes of Diallassagou, Koulogon Habe, Lassagou Habe, Segue, Soubala, Sokoura and Tori (7 February 2021) 4.

76 Democratic Republic of Congo, Accord Cadre pour la Paix en Ituri entre le Gouvernment de la Republique Democratique du Congo et les Groupes Armes de l'Ituri (MRC, FNI, et FRPI) (29 November 2006) 2.

77 Democratic Republic of Congo, Outcome Documents from the Conclusion of the Kampala Dialogue between the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the M23 (12 December 2013) para 17.

78 Burundi, Déclaration du Directoire Politique du processus de paix au Burundi sur le processus de mise en oeuvre des décisions conjointes prises à Pretoria (8 April 2009) 1.

79 South Sudan, Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (ARCSS) (17 August 2015).

80 Central African Republic, Pacte Républicain pour la paix, la réconciliation nationale et la reconstruction en la République Centrafricaine (11 May 2015); Democratic Republic of Congo, Accord Cadre pour la Paix en Ituri entre le Gouvernment de la Republique Democratique du Congo et les Groupes Armes de l'Ituri (MRC, FNI, et FRPI) (29 November 2006).

81 South Sudan/Sudan, Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the Government of the Republic of the Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Sudan People's Liberation Movement (Naivasha Agreement) (9 January 2005) 130.

82 Liberia, Peace Agreement between the Government of Liberia, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), the Movement of Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and the Political Parties (Accra Agreement) (18 August 2003) art XXXI.

83 ibid.

84 Central African Republic, Agreement between the Transitional Government and the armed groups on the principles of disarmament, demobilization, reintegration and repatriation and of integration into the uniformed State forces of the Central African Republic (DDRR Agreement) (10 May 2015) art 3.

85 Mali, Agreement between the Dafing, Samogo, Fulani, Dogon and Bozo communities of the Baye municipality, located in the area (‘circle’) of Bankass and the region of Mopti (Baye Agreement) (25 July 2019) 3.

86 Democratic Republic of Congo, Accord Cadre pour la Paix en Ituri entre le Gouvernment de la Republique Democratique du Congo et les Groupes Armes de l'Ituri (MRC, FNI, et FRPI) (29 November 2006).

87 Sierra Leone, Peace Agreement between the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone (RUF/SL) (Lomé Agreement) (7 July 1999) Pt 5(1).

88 South Sudan, Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (ARCSS) (17 August 2015).

89 Burundi, Déclaration du Directoire Politique du processus de paix au Burundi sur le processus de mise en oeuvre des décisions conjointes prises à Pretoria (8 April 2009).

90 Kenya, Mabanga Peace Accord (21 October 2011) 4, para 12.

91 Liberia, Peace Agreement between the Government of Liberia, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), the Movement of Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and the Political Parties (Accra Agreement) (18 August 2003).

92 Democratic Republic of Congo, Outcome Documents from the Conclusion of the Kampala Dialogue between the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the M23 (12 December 2013) 18.

93 ibid.

94 Burundi, Comprehensive Ceasefire Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Burundi and the Palipehutu – FNL (7 September 2006).

95 Grossman (n 41) 323.

96 C Aptel, Children and Accountability for International Crimes: The Contribution of International Criminal Courts (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre 2010) 21.

97 Cataleta, MS, ‘The Prohibition of Prosecution of Child Soldiers: A Desirable Emerging Rule of Customary International Law’ (2022) 21 Chinese JIL 805, 807Google Scholar.

98 Report of the Secretary General (n 5).

99 Cataleta (n 97) 807.

100 Abidi, C Baillie, ‘Prevention, Protection and Participation: Children Affected by Armed Conflict’ (2021) 3 FrontHumDyn, article 624133, 4Google Scholar.

101 J Schafer, ‘The Use of Patriarchal Imagery in the Civil War in Mozambique and its Implications for the Reintegration of Child Soldiers’ in J Boyden and J de Berry (eds), Children and Youth on the Front Line: Ethnography, Armed Conflict and Displacement (Berghahn Books 2004).

102 C Reis, ‘Trying the Future, Avenging the Past: The Implications of Prosecuting Children for Participation in Internal Armed Conflict’ (1997) 28 ColumHumRtsLRev 629, 644; M Happold, ‘Child Soldiers: Victims or Perpetrators?’ (2008) 29 ULaVerneLRev 56, 62.

103 Amnesty International, ‘Child Soldiers: Criminals or Victims?’ (22 December 2000) 6–7 < https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ior50/002/2000/en/#:~:text=This%20report%20examines%20the%20complex,recruiting%20and%20controlling%20child%20soldiers.>

104 Happold, M, ‘Child Soldiers in International Law: The Legal Regulation of Children's Participation in Hostilities’ (2000) 47(1) NILR 27, 28CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

105 See E Katz, Negotiating Justice: Peace Processes as Vehicles for Transitional Justice (Global Initiative for Justice & Reconciliation 2021) 12; S Vandeginste and C Lekha Sriram, ‘Power Sharing and Transitional Justice: A Clash of Paradigms?’ (2011) 17 GlobGovern 489. See also J Leib, ‘How Justice Becomes Part of the Deal: Pre-Conditions for the Inclusion of Transitional Justice Provisions in Peace Agreements’ (2022) 16 IJTJ 439; A Jamar, ‘The Exclusivity of Inclusion: Global Construction of Vulnerable and Apolitical Victimhood in Peace Agreements’ (2021) 15 IJTJ 284.

106 Colombia, Final Agreement to End the Armed Conflict and Build a Stable and Lasting Peace (24 November 2016).

107 ibid, Ch 5 and Congress of the Republic of Colombia, ACT 1820, Law 1820 of 30 December 2016.

108 Colombia, Agreement on the Victims of Conflict, ‘Comprehensive System for Truth, Justice, Reparation and Non-repetition’, including the Special Jurisdiction for Peace; and Commitment on Human Rights (15 December 2015).

109 See also Law 1820 of 2016 (n 107); and Congress of the Republic of Colombia, ACT 1957, Law 1957 of 6 June 2019.

110 Democratic Republic of Congo, Outcome Documents from the Conclusion of the Kampala Dialogue between the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the M23 (12 December 2013) 9, 14.

111 ibid, Annex 1, 6.

112 Mali/Azawad, Accord Pour la Paix et la Reconciliation au Mali—Issu du Processus d'Alger (20 June 2015) 11, Section V: Reconciliation, Justice and Humanitarian Questions, Ch 14: Reconciliation and Justice, art 47.

113 Sudan/Darfur, Ceasefire Agreement between the Government of Sudan and the LJM (18 March 2010) 4, para 8.

114 LH Seyfarth, ‘Child Soldiers to War Criminals: Trauma and the Case for Personal Mitigation’ (2013) 14 Chi-KentJIntl&CompL 117.

115 E Lafayette, The Prosecution of Child Soldiers: Balancing Accountability with Justice’ (2013) 63 SyracuseLRev 297, 298.

116 ibid 298.

117 C Clark, ‘Discussion Paper: Juvenile Justice and Child Soldiering (Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 4 June 2015)’ cited in A Veale, ‘The Criminal Responsibility of Former Child Soldiers: Contributions from Psychology’ in K Arts and V Popovski (eds), International Criminal Accountability and the Rights of the Child (Hague Academic Press 2006).

118 A Mawson, ‘Children, Impunity and Justice: Some Dilemmas from Northern Uganda’ (Conference on ‘Children in Extreme Circumstances, London School of Economics, 27 November 1998).

119 KJ Fisher, Transitional Justice for Child Soldiers: Accountability and Social Reconstruction in Post Conflict Contexts (Palgrave Macmillan 2013).

120 M Nobert, Children at War: The Criminal Responsibility of Child Soldiers’ (2011) 3 PaceIntlLRev Online Companion 1.

121 M Drumbl, ‘Child Soldiers and Clicktivism: Justice, Myths, and Prevention’ (2012) 4 JHumRtsPrac 481, 482.

122 ibid.

123 D Johnson, ‘Women as the Essential Protectors of Children?: Gender and Child Protection in UN Peacekeeping’ (2022) 29 IntlPeacekeeping 282, 289.

124 Sudan/Darfur, Doha Document for Peace in Darfur (DDPD) (31 May 2011) art 63.

125 Sudan/Darfur, Ceasefire Agreement between the Government of Sudan and the Justice and Equality Movement-Sudan (JEM) (10 February 2013).

126 Final Agreement to End the Armed Conflict (n 106) 310, para 10.

127 Joint Communique #70 (n 52) para 2.

128 International Bureau for Children's Rights (IBCR), Children and Armed Conflict: A Guide to International Humanitarian and Human Rights Law (IBCR 2010) 131 <https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/3392.pdf/>.

129 See Jamar (n 105); T Madlingozi ‘On Transitional Justice Entrepreneurs and the Production of Victims’ (2010) 2 JHumRtsPrac 208.

130 Liberia, Peace Agreement between the Government of Liberia, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), the Movement of Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and the Political Parties (Accra Agreement) (18 August 2003) art XXXI.

131 Burundi, Comprehensive Ceasefire Agreement between the Government of the Republic of Burundi and the Palipehutu – FNL (7 September 2006) 16, Annexure III.

132 IBCR (n 128) 131.

133 ibid.

134 UNICEF, ‘The Paris Principles: Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups’ (February 2017) <https://www.unicef.org/mali/media/1561/file/ParisPrinciples.pdf>.

135 OSRSG CAAC (n 4).

136 H Fore, ‘Opinion: Female Child Soldiers Often Go Unseen but Must Not Be Forgotten’ (Thomson Reuters Foundations News, 12 February 2021) <https://news.trust.org/item/20210211143359-cpm3z>.

137 Paris Principles (n 134) para 1.1.

138 Leibig, A, ‘Girl Child Soldiers in Northern Uganda: Do Current Legal Frameworks Offer Sufficient Protection?’ (2005) 3 NwJIntlHumRts 1Google Scholar.

139 Mazurana, D and McKay, S, ‘Child Soldiers; What About the Girls?’ (2001) 57 BullAtSci 30Google Scholar.

140 R Haer, ‘The Study of Child Soldiering: Issues and Consequences for DDR Implementation’ (2017) 38 TWQ 450, 459 citing MW Wessells, ‘Girls in Armed Forces and Groups in Angola: Implications for Ethical Research and Reintegration’ in Gates and Reich (eds) (n 57) 183–99.

141 Sudan/Darfur, Doha Document for Peace in Darfur (DDPD) (31 May 2011).

142 Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict (n 10) 1.

143 Uganda, Agreement on Accountability and Reconcilation between the Government of the Republic of Uganda and the Lord's Resistance Army/Movement (29 June 2007) art 12.

144 A Bramble and T Paffenholz, Implementing Peace Agreements: From Inclusive Processes to Inclusive Outcomes? (Inclusive Peace & Transition Initiative, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies 2021).

145 Spoilers are those individuals or groups that attempt to impede, frustrate or prevent a peace process. See SJ Stedman, DS Rothchild and EM Cousens (eds), Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements (Lynne Rienner Publishers 2002).

146 Byers, M, ‘Still Agreeing to Disagree: International Security and Constructive Ambiguity’ (2021) 8 JUseForceIntlL 91Google Scholar.

147 Cote d'Ivoire, Linas-Marcoussis Agreement (23 January 2003) art 4.

148 Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict (n 10) 1.

149 Uganda, Agreement on Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration, Juba, Sudan (29 July 2008) art 2.

150 Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict (n 10) 1.

151 Sudan/Darfur, Ceasefire Agreement between the Government of Sudan and the LJM (18 March 2010) 3.

152 Sudan/Darfur, Darfur Peace Agreement (5 May 2006) art 24.

153 Yemen, National Dialogue Conference Outcomes Document (25 January 2014) 97, Ch two, Section one, Working Group on Building the Foundations for the Security and Military Institutions, First: Decisions on Constitutional Principles, para 19.

154 Colombia, Acuerdo de la Puerta del Cielo (15 July 1998).

155 Nepal, Agreement on the Monitoring of Arms and Armies (8 December 2006) 1.

156 UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) 1577 UNTS 3 (CRC) <https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b38f0.html>.

157 Banholzer and Haer (n 69).

158 OSRSG CAAC (n 32) 36.

159 ibid.

160 S Molloy, Assessing and Influencing Progress in Peace Processes Workshop Report (Global Justice Academy, University of Edinburgh, 2018) <https://peacerep.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Barcelona-Report-DIGITAL.pdf>.

161 Banholzer and Haer (n 69) 112.

162 G Akello, JMH Richters and R Reis, ‘Reintegration of Former Child Soldiers in Northern Uganda: Coming to Terms with Children's Agency and Accountability’ (2006) 4 Intervention: International Journal of Mental Health, Psychosocial Work and Counselling in Areas of Armed Conflict 229, 240.

163 Final Agreement to End the Armed Conflict (n 106).

164 Sudan, Sudan Peace Agreement (Juba Agreement) (3 October 2020).

165 Uganda, Agreement on Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration, Juba, Sudan (29 July 2008).

166 Final Agreement to End the Armed Conflict (n 106) 75–6, para 3.2.2.5.

167 ibid 75–6, para 3.2.2.5.

168 ibid 75, para 3.2.2.5.

169 ibid.

170 See, for discussion, R Jeffery, ‘Amnesties and Peace Agreements: The Asia-Pacific in Global Comparative Perspective, 1980–2015’ in R Jeffery (ed), Negotiating Peace: Amnesties, Justice and Human Rights (CUP 2021).

171 CRC (n 156) art 38(2).

172 ibid.

173 ibid.

174 UN General Assembly, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (adopted 25 May 2000, entered into force 12 February 2002) <https://www.refworld.org/docid/47fdfb180.html>.

175 ibid, art 1.

176 ibid, art 2.

177 ibid, art 3.

178 Whitman, S and Abidi, C Baillie, ‘Preventing Recruitment to Improve Protection of Children’ (2020) 4 Allons-Y 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

179 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (adopted 11 July 1990, entered into force 29 November 1999) OAU Doc CAB/LEG/24.9/49, art 22(2).

180 UN General Assembly, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (last amended 2010) (adopted 17 July 1998) ISBN No 92-9227-227-6 <https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3a84.html>.

181 ICRC, Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 December 1978) 1125 UNTS 3, art 77, para 2 <https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36b4.html>.

182 ICRC, Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II) (adopted 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 December 1978) 1125 UNTS 609, art 4, para 3(c) <https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b37f40.html>.

183 See Wessells (n 47); DA Harris, ‘When Child Soldiers Reconcile: Accountability, Restorative Justice, and the Renewal of Empathy’ (2010) 2 JHumRtsPrac 334.

184 Katz (n 105) 12.

185 ibid.

186 See JCK Kiyala, ‘Combining Restorative Justice and Social Justice: Prospects of Child Soldiering Transitional Justice’ (2018) 27(3–4) AfrSecRev 193.

187 Drumbl, MA, ‘Transcending Victimhood: Child Soldiers and Restorative Justice’ in C Safferling and T Bonacker (eds), Victims of International Crimes: An Interdisciplinary Discourse (TMC Asser Press 2013) 139Google Scholar.

188 ibid 142.

189 Robinson, P, ‘The Virtues of Restorative Processes. The Vices of “Restorative Justice”’ in M Tonry (ed), Why Punish? How Much? (OUP 2011)Google Scholar.

190 L Stovel and M Valiñas, ‘Restorative Justice After Mass Violence: Opportunities and Risks for Children and Youth’ (2010) UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Working Paper No 2010-15, 2.

191 See D Reynaert, M Bouverne-De-Bie and S Vandevelde, ‘A Review of Children's Rights Literature Since the Adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child’ (2009) 16 Childhood 518.

192 K Hanson and N Peleg, ‘Waiting for Children's Rights Theory’ (2020) 28 IntlJChildRts 15.

193 Hanson, K and Nieuwenhuys, O, ‘A Child-Centered Approach to Children's Rights Law: Living Rights and Translations’ in J Todres and SM King (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Children's Rights Law (OUP 2020) 111Google Scholar; Hanson, K and Nieuwenhuys, O, Reconceptualizing Children's Rights: Living Rights, Social Justice, Translations (CUP 2013)Google Scholar.

194 Central African Republic, Political Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation in the Central African Republic (Khartoum Accord) (5 February 2019) Annex 2.

195 Central African Republic, Synthesis of the Harmonised Claims of the Armed Groups of the RCO Bouar, of 30 August 2018 (30 August 2018).

196 See S Molloy, ‘Exclusionary Inclusion? Peace Agreements and Provisions on Child Protection’ (2023) NordJHumRts <https://doi.org/10.1080/18918131.2023.2268997>.