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For many comets the accelerations radially from the Sun have been determined by deviations from gravitational orbits. The radial force per unit area can be calculated on the basis of certain assumptions concerning the nature of the vaporizing material, the physical circumstances, and the geometry of the cometary nucleus. The observed accelerations combined with the calculated forces yield numerical values for (1-A)/R where A is the albedo, and R the radius of the nucleus. At extreme solar distances photometry provides the well-known quantity area-times-albedo or RA1/2. Solutions are then possible for R and A for the nuclei of the comets. The derived quantity, (1-A)A1/2, provides a limiting check on the basic assumptions and, therefore, on the basic physical properties of the nuclei. For ten short-period comets with q < 1.5 AU, the observations are satisfied by H2O ice. About half show “spotty” surfaces.
For comets of a single apparition H2O ice is generally not volatile enough to produce the observed radial accelerations. The resulting problems are discussed including the possibility that in some cases displacements of the photometric from the gravitational nucleus may produce spurious non-gravitational accelerations.
The physical characteristics of comets vary with their orbits and with their age. New comets on their first near solar passage from the Oort cloud are extremely active. The activity falls statistically with increasing age. This sequence must represent a corresponding sequence or layering of structure from the surface of a new comet inwards and is described qualitatively in this paper.
The excessive activity of new comets is ascribed to cumulative cosmic-ray damage that activates the outer few hundred gm cm-2 from the surface. The total energy input in 4.6 x 109 yr reaches 50,000 cal gm-1 near the surface so that both crystalline structures and molecules are severely damaged if not completely destroyed. Annealing at T - 10 K must be very small. Hence significant exothermic energy in the form of defects, vacancies and radicals is added to produce the extraordinary activity observed in new comets.
Other aspects and problems of cometary activity are discussed.
