Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-5g6vh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-29T00:51:59.970Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Struggle for Dayr Al-Zur: The Determination of Borders Between Syria and Iraq

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2009

Eliezer Tauber
Eliezer Tauber
Affiliation:
Department Of General History Bar-Ilan University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

When World War I ended and the political map of the Middle East was redrawn, the ruler-straight borders separating the Fertile Crescent countries were not determined wholly in Europe, when the mandates were divided between Britain and France, as is commonly believed. The border between Syria and Iraq was determined between 1918 and 1920, when Iraqi officers serving in the Syrian army brought about the annexation of regions originally designated for British-occupied Iraq to Faysal 's Arab government in Syria.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 23 , Issue 3 , August 1991 , pp. 361 - 385
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1991

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Wilson, Arnold T., Mesopotamia, 1917–1920: A Clash of Loyalties (London, 1931, rpt. 1936), p. 228Google Scholar; al-Talʿafarī, Qaḥtān Aḥmad ʿAbūth, Thawrat Talʿafar 1920 wa-al-Ḥarakät al-Waṭaniyya al-Ukhrá fi Minṭaqat al-Jazīra (Baghdad, 1969), p. 418.Google Scholar

2 British Public Record Office (London-Kew), Foreign Office Records [hereafter: FO] 371/3385: t [= telegram] 10222, Civil Commissioner (Baghdad) to India Office (London) [hereafter: IO], 24 November 1918. Bell, Gertrude L., Review of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia [Cmd. 1061] (London, 1920), p. 133.Google Scholar

3 al-ʿUmarī, Muḥammad Ṭāhir, Tārīkh Muqaddarāt al-ʿIrāq al-Siyāsiyya (Baghdad, 1924–1925), vol. II, pp. 283–84.Google Scholar

4 India Office Library and Records (London), L/P/10/769: t11457, Political (Baghdad) to Secretary of State for India (London) [hereafter: SSI], 22 December 1918; t11513, Civil Commissioner to SSI, 23 December 1918; t11550, Political to SSI, 24 December 1918; t11609, Political to SSI, 27 December 1918. L/P/10/619: “Diary of Assistant Political Officer, Anah, For month ending December 31st 1918,” in “Monthly Reports of Political Officers—Baghdad Wilayat—November 1918,” sent from Office of Civil Commissioner to Under SSI, 23 February 1919. FO 882/23: memorandum, “Intrigues in favour of Sharif in Baghdad,” by Office of Civil Commissioner to Director, Arab Bureau (Cairo), 23 February 1919. Arab Bulletin, 108 (Cairo) (11 January, 1919), p. 10; Bell, Review, p. 133; al-ʿUmarī, Tārīkh, vol. III, p. 336.

5 FO 371/3385: t10222, Civil Commissioner to IO, 24 November 1918. Bell, , Review, p. 133Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 228–29Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 336–37Google Scholar; Saʿīd, Amīn, al-Thawra al-ʿArabiyya al-Kubrá (Cairo, [1934]), vol. II, pt. 1, p. 115Google Scholar; Loder, J. De V., The Truth about Mesopotamia, Palestine and Syria (London, 1923), p. 60.Google Scholar

6 Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 112.Google Scholar

7 FO 371/3385: t10222, Civil Commissioner to IO, 24 November 1918; t10367, Political to IO, 27 November 1918. Bell, , Review, p. 133Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 229.Google Scholar

8 L/P/10/769: t11252, Political to IO, 18 December 1918; t11457, Political to SSI, 22 December 1918; t11513, Civil Commissioner to SSI, 23 December 1918. L/P/10/619: “Diary of Assistant Political Officer, Anah, For month ending December 31st 1918.” Arab Bulletin, 108 (Cairo) (11 January, 1919), p. 10; Bell, , Review, p. 133Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 229.Google Scholar

9 L/P/10/769: t11252, Political to IO, 18 December 1918. FO 371/3386: d [= dispatch] P5642, John E. Shuckburgh (IO) to FO, 21 December 1918; d5787, Shuckburgh to FO, 27 December 1918.

10 L/P/10/769: t11513, Civil Commissioner to SSI, 23 December 1918; t11609, Political to SSI, 27 December 1918. L/P/10/619: “Diary of Assistant Political Officer, Anah, For month ending December 31st 1918.” Arab Bulletin, 108 (Cairo) (11 January, 1919), p. 10.

11 L/P/10/769: t11609, Political to SSI, 27 December 1918. L/P/10/619: “Diary of Assistant Political Officer, Anah, For month ending December 31st 1918.” FO 371/4177: t265, Gilbert F. Clayton (Cairo) to FO, 2 January 1919. Arab Bulletin, 108 (Cairo) (11 January, 1919), p. 10.

12 L/P/10/769: tX4934, GHQ Mesopotamia to Egypt and War Office (London) [hereafter: WO], 10 January 1919; t, Political to GHQ Egypt and IO, 13 January 1919. Arab Bulletin, 108 (Cairo) (11 January, 1919), p. 10; al-ʿUmarī, Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 337.Google Scholar

13 L/P/10/769: tX4934, GHQ Mesopotamia to Egypt and WO, 10 January 1919; tX4970, GOC-in-C Mesopotamia to GHQ Egypt, 11 January 1919. Archives du Ministère de la Guerre, Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre (Vincennes) [hereafter: MG], 6N196: t43, Honoré-Mauris Roux (Basra) to Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (Paris) [hereafter: MAE], 24 January 1919. Bell, , Review, p. 133Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 229Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 337Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 115.Google Scholar

14 MG, 6N196: t43, Roux to MAE, 24 January 1919. FO 371/4162: t, Zayd (Damascus) to Faysal (Paris), enclosed with t24, Clayton to FO, 31 January 1919. L/P/10/620: “Diary of the A.P.O. Anah, For January 1919,” in “Monthly Reports of Political Officers of Occupied Territories, January 1919,” sent from Office of Civil Commissioner to Under SSI, 19 May 1919. FO 371/4148: “Monthly Administrative Report No. 4 15 January 1919–15 February 1919,” enclosed with memorandum S/36, Office of Civil Commissioner to Director, Arab Bureau, 26 February 1919.

15 al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 338Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, Muḥammad al-Mahdī, Tārīkh al-Qaḍiyya al-ʿIrāqiyya (Baghdad, 1923), pp. 118–19.Google Scholar

16 Israel State Archives (Jerusalem) [hereafter: ISA], 2/2: Supplement to GHQ Intelligence Summary dated 16 July 1919. Bell, , Review, p. 133Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 229Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 148–49.Google Scholar

17 Bell, , Review, p. 134Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 230Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 119.Google Scholar

18 FO 371/4181: t6146, Arnold T. Wilson (Baghdad) to IO, 31 May 1919; letter P2996, Shuckburgh to Under Secretary of State (FO), 14 June 1919.

19 FO 371/4183: letter, IO to Under Secretary of State (FO), 22 September 1919. Bell, , Review, p. 134Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 230–31Google Scholar; Loder, , Truth, p. 69.Google Scholar

20 ISA 2/7: reports, Waters Taylor (Mount Carmel), 23 and 26 December 1919. FO 371/4186: tI/1255/B, GHQ Egypt to Director of Military Intelligence, 30 December 1919. FO 371/5128: memorandum, “Report on the events at Dair-ez-Zor during November and December 1919” by A. Chamier (Baghdad), 2 January 1920. al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 185, 339Google Scholar; al-Hasanī, ʿAbd al-Razzāq, al-Thawra al-ʿIrāqiyya al-Kubrá, 2nd ed. (Sidon, 1965), p. 50Google Scholar; al-Qaysī, Sāmī ʿAbd al-Ḥāfiẓ, Yāsīn al-Hāshimī wa-Dawruhu fī-al-Siyāsa al-ʿIrāqiyya bayna Āmay 1922–1936 (Basra, 1975), vol. I, p. 81Google Scholar; Haldane, Aylmer L., The Insurrection in Mesopotamia, 1920 (Edinburgh and London, 1922), p. 32.Google Scholar

21 ISA 2/15: letters sealed by Zayd, 7 November 1919; letter from Jaʿfar al-ʿAskari (Aleppo) to Military Governor (Raqqa), 15 November 1919. FO 371/4186: tP1335, Policy Egypforce (Cairo) to Civil Commissioner, 19 November 1919. L/P/10/770: t13961, Civil Commissioner to Political Officer (Dayr al-Zur), 20 November 1919. L/P/10/769: t503, Richard Meinertzhagen (Cairo) to FO, 28 November 1919. L/P/10/770: t14862, Civil Commissioner to Policy Egypforce and IO, 10 December 1919. L/P/10/769: t14953, Civil Commissioner to IO, 12 December 1919. ISA 2/7: report, Taylor, 26 December 1919. FO 371/5128: memorandum, “Report on the events at Dair-ez-Zor during November and December 1919” by Chamier, 2 January 1920. ISA 2/15: letter, Charles Smith (Aleppo) to High Commissioner (Jerusalem), 13 September 1920. Al-Muqaṭṭam, 10 January 1920. Bell, , Review, p. 134Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 231Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 340Google Scholar; Al-Talʿafarī, , Thawra, p. 117.Google Scholar

22 L/P/10/769: t14953, Civil Commissioner to IO, 12 December 1919: t14992, Civil Commissioner to SSI, 13 December 1919. MG, 6N196: t628–629, Roux (Baghdad) to MAE, 14 December 1919. Archives du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (Paris), Levant 1918–1929, Arabie-Hedjaz 7: t12, de Méru (Cairo) to MG, 14 December 1919. MG, 6N193: t1654, Henri Gouraud (Beirut) to MAE, 16 December 1919. T, American Consul (Baghdad), 16 December 1919, cited in Evans, Laurence, United States Policy and the Partition of Turkey, 1914–1924 (Baltimore, 1965), p. 246.Google Scholar MAE, Arabie-Hedjaz 8: t1902–1903, Military Attaché (London) to MG, 20 December 1919: t5, Roux to MAE, 2 January 1920. FO 371/5128: memorandum, “Reports on the events at Dair-ez-Zor during November and December 1919” by Chamier, 2 January 1920. British Public Record Office, Colonial Office Records [hereafter: CO] 696/3: “Administration Report, Arab and Kurdish Levies and Gendarmerie, 1915 to 1920,” p. 6. Bell, , Review, pp. 134–35Google Scholar; al-Muqaṭṭam, 10 January 1920; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 340–41Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 120Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 115Google Scholar; al-Hasanī, , al-Thawra, p. 50Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 231–32Google Scholar; Browne, J. Gilbert, The Iraq Levies, 1915–1932 (London, 1932), p. 7.Google Scholar

23 L/P/10/769: t14953, Civil Commissioner to IO, 12 December 1919; t14967, Civil Commissioner to IO, 12 December 1919; t14992, Civil Commissioner to SSI, 13 December 1919. MG, 6N193: t1654, Gouraud to MAE, 16 December 1919. FO 371/5128: memorandum, “Report on the events at Dair-ez-Zor during November and December 1919” by Chamier, 2 January 1920. MG, 6N194: t67–68, Gouraud to MAE, 14 January 1920. Al-Muqaṭṭam, 10 January 1920; Bell, , Review, p. 135Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 232Google Scholar; al-Hasanī, , al-Thawra, p. 50.Google Scholar

24 The British Library (London), Wilson Papers, Add 52456A: letter S/520, Wilson to G. C. Stephenson (London), 12 December 1919.

25 L/P/10/769: t14967, Civil Commissioner to IO, 12 December 1919. FO 371/5128: memorandum, “Reports on the events at Dair-ez-Zor during November and December 1919” by Chamier, 2 January 1920. Al-Muqaṭṭam, 10 January 1920; Bell, , Review, p. 135Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 232–33Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 342.Google Scholar

26 ISA 2/7: report, Taylor, 26 December 1919. FO 371/5128: memorandum, “Reports on the events at Dair-ez-Zor during November and December 1919” by Chamier, 2 January 1920. Bell, , Review, p. 136Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 233Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 346–47Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 121.Google Scholar

27 L/P/10/769: t15524, Civil Commissioner to IO, 24 December 1919; tX7948, GHQ Mesopotamia to WO, 27 December 1919. FO 371/4186: tX7950, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 27 December 1919. L/P/10/769: t15599, Civil Commissioner to SSI, 27 December 1919; t15649, Civil Commissioner to IO, 29 December 1919. MAE, Arabie-Hedjaz 8: t673–74, Roux to MAE, 31 December 1920. MG, 6N193: t1718, Gouraud to MAE, 31 December 1919. FO 371/5128: memorandum, “Report on the events at Dair-ez-Zor during November and December 1919” by Chamier, 2 January 1920. The Times, 20 January 1920; Bell, , Review, p. 136Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 233–34Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 347Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, pp. 121–22.Google Scholar

28 L/P/10/769: t14953, Civil Commissioner to IO, 12 December 1919: t14990, Civil Commissioner to SSI, 13 December 1919. MAE, Arabie-Hedjaz 7: t12, de Méru to MG, 14 December 1919. FO 371/4186: tX7881, George F. MacMunn (Baghdad) to WO, 15 December 1919. MG, 6N193: t1654, Gouraud to MAE, 16 December 1919. L/P/10/769: t15413, Civil Commissioner to IO, 21 December 1919. FO 371/4186: tX7923, Mesopotamia to WO, 22 December 1919. L/P/10/769: t15524, Civil Commissioner to IO, 24 December 1919. al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 344Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 115.Google Scholar

29 FO 371/5128: letter, Ramadan al-Shallash (Dayr al-Zur) to ʿAli ibn Sulayman, 12 December 1919, enclosed with memorandum 1307, Office of Civil Commissioner to Under SSI, 12 January 1920. FO 371/5129: letters, Muhsin al-Hardani to Political Officer (Albu Kamal), and ʿAli Al Sulayman to Political Officer (Albu Kamal), both enclosed with memorandum 1757, Civil Commissioner to Under SSI, 16 January 1920.

30 MAE, Arabie-Hedjaz 8: t656, Roux to MAE, 24 December 1920. ISA 2/7: report, Taylor, 26 December 1919. MAE, Arabie-Hedjaz 8: t667, Roux to MAE, 27 December 1920. FO 371/4186: tI/1255/B, GHQ Egypt to Director of Military Intelligence, 30 December 1919. MG, 6N193: t1718, Gouraud to MAE, 31 December 1919. Correspondance d'Orient, 229 (15 January, 1920), pp. 19–20Google Scholar; Qāsimiyya, Khayriyya, al-Hukūma al-ʿArabiyya fī Dimashq bayna 1918–1920 (Cairo, 1971), pp. 154–55Google Scholar, citing al-Āṣima, 25 December 1919; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 114Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, pp. 120–21Google Scholar; Young, Hubert, The Independent Arab (London, 1933), p. 229.Google Scholar

31 FO 371/4186: letter, Faysal (Paris) to Henry Wilson (WO, London), 18 December 1919. L/P/10/769: letter, Faysal (Paris) to Henry Wilson (WO, London), enclosed with d152/5314, WO to Under SSI, December 1919. MAE, Arabie-Hedjaz 8: t656, Roux to MAE, 24 December 1920. Correspondance d'Orient, 229 (15 January, 1920), p. 19Google Scholar; Bell, , Review, p. 135Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 233Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 121.Google Scholar

32 ISA 2/7: report, Taylor, 23 December 1919. d435, American Consul (Aleppo), 5 January 1920, cited in Evans, United States Policy, p. 246. DFO10(CPO311/6), Meinertzhagen to Curzon (FO), 13 January 1920, cited in Woodward, E. L. and Butler, Rohan, eds., Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939 (London, 1952)Google Scholar, First Series, vol. IV, p. 614. MG, 6N194: t67–68, Gouraud to MAE, 14 January 1920. ISA 2/15: letter, Smith to High Commissioner (Jerusalem), 13 September 1920.

33 ISA 2/7: report, Taylor, 26 December 1919. al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 348.Google Scholar

34 MG, 6N193: t1718, Gouraud to MAE, 31 December 1919. Al-Muqaṭṭam, 10 January 1920, citing al-Mufīd. Central Zionist Archives (Jerusalem), L4/737: report 142JA (Jaffa), 16 January 1920.

35 ISA 2/7: report, Taylor, 26 December 1919. FO 371/5128: memorandum, “Report on the events at Dair-ez-Zor during November and December 1919” by Chamier, 2 January 1920. The Times, 20 January 1920. British Public Record Office, War Office Records 106/922: Personalities in the Area Occupied by the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force, or Connected Therewith (General Staff, Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force, 1920), p. 167.

36 L/P/10/756: t15618, Civil Commissioner to IO, 27 December 1919. L/P/10/839: “Mesopotamian Police—Abstract of Intelligence” no. 1 (Baghdad), 3 January 1920. Haldane, Insurrection, p. 33.

37 Wilson Papers, Add 52455A: letter, Wilson to Percy Z. Cox (Tehran), 2 January 1920.

38 FO 371/4185: t82431, WO to GOC India, 21 November 1919. FO 371/4186: t15525, Civil Commissioner to IO, 24 December 1919; t, IO to Civil Commissioner, 7 January 1920; t491, Civil Commissioner to IO, 13 January 1920. FO 371/4187: letter, 152/5314(MI2), B. B. Cubitt (WO) to Under SSI, 10 February 1920.

39 L/P/10/770: t39/OC/2, Troopers London (WO) to GHQ Baghdad, 20 December 1919. FO 371/4186: t15525, Civil Commissioner to IO, 24 December 1919. Wilson Papers, Add 52458B: letter, Wilson to Henry R. C. Dobbs (Delhi), 26 January 1920. Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 233.Google Scholar

40 FO 371/4186: t15525, Civil Commissioner to IO, 24 December 1919; t, IO to Civil Commissioner, 7 January 1920; t491, Civil Commissioner to IO, 13 January 1920. Wilson Papers, Add 52456A: letter S/2756, Wilson to Stephenson, 24 January 1920.

41 FO 371/4186: summary of telegrams from Baghdad to IO and from GHQ Mesopotamia to WO, and Minutes by George J. Kidston (FO), 31 December 1919.

42 FO 371/4187: letter 152/5314(MI2), Cubitt to Under SSI, 10 February 1920.

43 Wilson Papers, Add 52459B: letter, Wilson to Shuckburgh, 6 March 1920.

44 FO 371/4186: t419, Civil Commissioner to IO, 10 January 1920. Al-Muqaṭṭam, 10 January 1920; The Times, 20 January 1920; Bell, , Review, p. 136Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 234–35Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 348Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 122.Google Scholar

45 FO 371/4186: tX8062, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 13 January 1920. CO 696/3: “Administration Report of the Dulaim Division for the Year 1920,” p. 1. Bell, , Review, p. 136Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 235Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 349Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, pp. 122–23Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 115Google Scholar; Marlowe, John, Late Victorian: The Life of Sir Arnold Talbot Wilson (London, 1967), p. 179.Google Scholar

46 Bell, , Review, p. 136Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 234Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 350Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 123Google Scholar; Marlowe, , Late Victorian, p. 179.Google Scholar

47 MG, 6N194: t70/6, Gouraud to MAE, 14 January 1920. FO 371/5128: t1301, Civil Commissioner to IO, 29 January 1920. WO 106/922: Personalities, p. 128. Bell, , Review, p. 136Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, Tārīkh, vol. III, pp. 350–51 (Muḥammad Amīn al-ʿUmarī was the brother of Muhammad Ṭāhir al-ʿUmarī); al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 123Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 115Google Scholar; Wahab, Muḥammad Yūnus, Ahammiyyat Talʿafar fī Thawrat al-ʿIrāq al-Kubrā Ām 1920 (Mosul, 1967), p. 111.Google Scholar

48 al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 351, 357–58Google Scholar; Al-Talʿafarī, , Thawrat, p. 68.Google Scholar

49 The Iraqi “congress” was convened in Damascus in March 1920 on the initiative of al-ʿAhd al-ʿIraqi. It comprised twenty-nine delegates, most of whom were members of the society. On 8 March 1920, the congress declared the independence of Iraq.

50 Zayd's diary, 8 February 1920, cited in Mūsā, Sulaymān, ed., al-Thawra al-ʿArabiyya al-Kubrā: al-Ḥarb fī-al-Urdun 1917–1918—Mudhakkirāt al-Amīr Zayd (Amman, 1976), pp. 135–36.Google Scholar FO 371/5130: t7392, Civil Commissioner to IO, 18 June 1920. al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 365Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, pp. 125, 130Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 32Google Scholar; Al-Talʿafarī, , Thawrat, p. 140.Google Scholar

51 FO 371/5128: t1301, Civil Commissioner to IO, 29 January 1920. L/P/10/770: memorandum, Political Officer Dulaim Division (Ramadi) to Civil Commissioner, 30 January 1920, enclosed with memorandum, Office of Civil Commissioner to Under SSI, 12 February 1920. L/P/10/839: “Mesopotamian Police—Abstract of Intelligence” no. 5 (Baghdad), 31 January 1920. FO 371/5144: Letter of Proceeding 63, Rear-Admiral Egypt, 27 February 1920, enclosed with letter 906, V. W. Baddeley (Admiralty) to Under Secretary of State (FO), 24 March 1920. FO 371/5129: t3264, Civil Commissioner to IO, 12 March 1920. Bell, , Review, p. 137Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 235–36Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 32Google Scholar; Wahab, , Ahammiyyat, p. 111Google Scholar; Al-Talʿafarī, , Thawrat, p. 121.Google Scholar

52 FO 371/5128: t1301, Civil Commissioner to IO, 29 January 1920. MAE, Levant 1918–1929, Syrie-Liban-Cilicie 23: t362–63, Gouraud to MAE, 17 February 1920. FO 371/5144: Letter of Proceeding 63, Rear-Admiral Egypt, 27 February 1920, enclosed with letter 906, Baddeley to Under Secretary of State (FO), 24 March 1920. FO 371/5129: t3264, Civil Commissioner to IO, 12 March 1920. Bell, , Review, p. 137Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 235–36.Google Scholar

53 FO 371/5176: note by Bell, Gertrude L. (Baghdad), 22 May 1920.Google Scholar CO 696/3: “Administration Report of the Mosul Division for the Year 1920” (Baghdad, 1921), p. 1Google Scholar. Bell, , Review, p. 138Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 130Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 32Google Scholar; Ireland, Philip Willard, Iraq: A Study of Political Development (London, 1937; rpt. New York, 1970), pp. 257–58.Google Scholar

54 L/P/10/770: summary of an interview with Sasun Hasqayil, by E. W. Bovill, 10 March 1920, enclosed with memorandum, Wilson to Under SSI, 27 March 1920. FO 371/5199: t3297, Baghdad to IO, 13 March 1920. L/P/10/839: “Mesopotamian Police—Abstract of Intelligence” no. 11 (Baghdad), 13 March 1920. FO 371/5076: note by Bell, 22 May 1920. al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 366Google Scholar; al-Suwaydī, Tawfīq, Mudhakkirātī: Niṣf Qarn min Tārīkh al-ʿIrāq wa-al-Qaḍiyya al-ʿArabiyya (Beirut, 1969), p. 70.Google Scholar

55 WO 106/922: Personalities, p. 167. FO 371/6349: Personalities—Mosul, Arbil and Frontier (Baghdad, 1921), p. 26.Google ScholarBell, , Review, p. 138Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 236–37Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 365–66, 370–71Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 125Google Scholar; al-Suwaydī, , Mudhakkirātī, p. 70.Google Scholar

56 FO 371/5076: note by Bell, 22 May 1920.

57 Jawdat, ʿAlī, Dhikrayāt ʿAlī Jawdat 1900–1958 (Beirut, 1967), p. 94Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, pp. 125–26Google Scholar; Saʿīd, , al-Thawra, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 32Google Scholar; Al-Talʿafarī, , Thawrat, p. 124.Google Scholar

58 Al-Muqaṭṭam, 21 June 1920; al-Manār, 34, 5 (7 October, 1934), p. 397.

59 FO 371/5128: t1301, Civil Commissioner to IO, 29 January 1920. L/P/10/770: memorandum, Political Officer Dulaim Division to Civil Commissioner, 30 January 1920, enclosed with memorandum, Office of Civil Commissioner to Under SSI, 12 February 1920. L/P/11/171: t4044, Civil Commissioner to SSI, 4 April 1920. Haldane, , Insurrection, pp. 33, 105.Google Scholar

60 al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 351–53, 355, 357.Google Scholar

61 FO 371/5128: tX8166, GOC-in-C Mesopotamia to WO, 3 February 1920. MAE, Syrie-Liban-Cilicie 23: d94, Roux to Alexandre Millerand (Paris), 13 February 1920, enclosing Basrah Times, 10 February 1920. Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 236Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 358Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 126.Google Scholar

62 FO 371/5128: t8194, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 11 February 1920. al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 359–61, 363, 369–70.Google Scholar

63 FO 371/5128: t1571, Civil Commissioner to IO, 4 February 1920; t8194, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 11 February 1920; t2049, Civil Commissioner to IO, 15 February 1920. MAE, Syrie-Liban-Cilicie 23: d94, Roux to Millerand, 13 February 1920, enclosing Basrah Times, 10 February 1920. Al-Ḥasanī, , al-Thawra, p. 51Google Scholar, citing al-Mawṣil, 16 February 1920; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 358Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 126Google Scholar; Bell, , Review, pp. 136–37Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 235.Google Scholar

64 FO 371/5128: t2049, Civil Commissioner to IO, 15 February 1920; tX8230, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 17 February 1920. Bell, , Review, p. 137Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, pp. 235–36Google Scholar; al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, pp. 366–67, 369Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 126Google Scholar; Ṣaydāwī, Anīs, “Tārīkh al-Thawra al-ʿIrāqiyya wa-Aḥwāl al-ʿIrāq baʿda al-Iḥtilal al-Inklīzī,” al-Hilāl, 30 (1922), p. 517.Google Scholar

65 FO 371/5128: tX8243, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 19 February 1920; t28, FO to Meinertzhagen, 19 February 1920; tX8261, GOC-in-C Mesopotamia to WO, 24 February 1920; t2497, Civil Commissioner to IO, 25 February 1920; t8298, GHQ Mesopotamia to WO, 2 March 1920; t84012, WO to GHQ Mesopotamia, 6 March 1920. L/P/10/770: summary of an interview with Sasun Hasqayil, by Bovill, 10 March 1920, enclosed with memorandum, Wilson to Under SSI, 27 March 1920. FO 371/5129: t85318, WO to GOC Mesopotamia, 22 June 1920. Bell, , Review, p. 137Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 236Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, pp. 126–27Google Scholar; Ṣaydāwī, , “Tārīkh,” p. 517.Google Scholar

66 L/P/10/770: tX8324, GHQ Mesopotamia to WO, 8 March 1920. L/P/10/756: tX8343, GHQ Mesopotamia to WO, 12 March 1920. CO 696/3: “Administration Report of the Dulaim Division for the Year 1920,” p. 1.

67 FO 371/5129: tX8400, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 22 March 1920; letter 152/5422(M12), J. A. Corcoran (WO) to Under Secretary of State (FO), 27 March 1920; letter, FO to WO, 6 April 1920.

68 FO 371/5129: d239S, [Syrian Government] (Damascus) to British Liaison Officer (Damascus), 29 February 1920, enclosed with dFO31 (CPO402), Meinertzhagen to FO, 9 March 1920. FO 371/5128: tEA3008, GHQ Cairo to GOC-in-C Mesopotamia, 8 March 1920. Bell, , Review, pp. 137–38Google Scholar; Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 236Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 128.Google Scholar

69 FO 371/5129: tX8329, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 10 March 1920; tP2084, SSI to Civil Commissioner, 18 March 1920. L/P/10/770: t3829, Civil Commissioner to IO, 26 March 1920. Wilson, , Mesopotamia, p. 236.Google Scholar

70 FO 371/5129: tX8667, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 11 May 1920. FO 371/5199: t5847, Civil Commissioner to IO, 15 May 1920. MG, 6N196: t194, Roux to MAE, 15 May 1920. FO 371/5129: tX8708, GHQ Mesopotamia to Egypt, 18 May 1920. FO 371/5176: “Diary of Events from May 1st to May 20th” by Gerard E. Leachman (Ramadi), enclosed with memorandum 16306, Office of Civil Commissioner to Under SSI, 31 May 1920; note by Bell, 22 May 1920. CO 696/3: “Administration Report of the Dulaim Division for the Year 1920,” p. 1. Bell, , Review, p. 138Google Scholar; Correspondance d'Orient, 239 (15 June, 1920), p. 520Google Scholar; Jawdat, , Dhikrayāt, p. 95Google Scholar; al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 128.Google Scholar

71 FO 371/5129: tX8667, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 11 May 1920. FO 371/5199: t5847, Civil Commissioner to IO, 15 May 1920. FO 371/5129: tX8708, GHQ Mesopotamia to Egypt, 18 May 1920. FO 371/5076: “Diary of Events from May 1st to May 20th” by Leachman, enclosed with memorandum 16306, Office of Civil Commissioner to Under SSI, 31 May 1920; note by Bell, 22 May 1920. L/P/10/761: d121/3/1869, Cubitt to Under SSI, July 1920. Bell, , Review, p. 138Google Scholar; Correspondance d'Orient, 239 (15 June, 1920), p. 521Google Scholar; Jawdat, , Dhikrayāt, p. 96.Google Scholar

72 L/P/10/756: t5803, Civil Commissioner to IO, 15 May 1920. FO 371/5129: tX8699, GOC Mesopotamia to WO, 17 May 1920; letter, FO to Secretary of the Army Council (WO), 28 May 1920. FO 371/5130: t7146, Civil Commissioner to IO, 14 June 1920. L/P/10/761: d121/3/1869, Cubitt to Under SSI, July 1920. CO 696/3: “Administration Report of the Dulaim Division for the Year 1920,” p. 1. Bell, , Review, p. 138.Google Scholar

73 ISA 2/21: memorandum 1340, Assistant Political Officer (ʿAna) to Political Officer (Ramadi), 30 June 1920, enclosed with memorandum 3867/P/2/8, Leachman to Civil Commissioner, 12 July 1920. al-ʿUmarī, , Tārīkh, vol. 3, p. 371Google Scholar; Wahab, , Ahammiyyat, p. 111.Google Scholar

74 Talʿafar was a small town westward of Mosul. At the beginning of June 1920, its inhabitants, with the assistance of the Iraqi officers of al-ʿAhd al-ʿIraqi, started a revolt against the British.

75 CO 696/3: “Administration Report of the Dulaim Division for the Year 1920,” p. 1.

76 FO 371/5130: t7392, Civil Commissioner to IO, 18 June 1920.

77 Al-Baṣīr, Tārīkh, p. 116. For a similar version see United States Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: The Paris Peace Conference, 1919 (Washington, D.C., 1942–1947), vol. XII, p. 782.Google Scholar

78 Al-Suwaydī, , Mudhakkirātī, p. 70.Google Scholar

79 al-Baṣīr, , Tārīkh, p. 128.Google Scholar

80 Al-Talʿafarī, Thawrat, p. 418. On the fact that the Iraqis perceived the Dayr al-Zur region in Ottoman times as Iraqi, although administratively it was, in fact, an independent sanjaq, see the beginning of this article.