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Totten, Samuel
2004.
Century of Genocide.
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International Panel of Eminent Personalities (Ipep): Report on the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and Surrounding Events (Selected Sections)*
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 February 2017
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- Copyright ©American Society of International Law 2001
Footnotes
*
This document was reproduced and reformatted from the text appearing at the Organization of African Unity (OAU) website (visited February 6, 2001) <. http://www.oau-oua.org >.
References
Endnotes
* Marianne Schulze is a former legal intern with the American Society of International Law ILM Office, and a student at the University of Vienna, Faculty of Law. This abstract originally appeared in the Society's International Law In Brief,which is archived at http://www.asil.org.
page 157 note 1. Howard Zinn, A People's History of the United States, 1492-Present (New York: Harper Perennial, 1995 edition).
page 157 note 2. Sven Lindquist, Exterminate All the Brutes (New York: New Press, 1996). Translated from Swedish by Joan Tate.
page 157 note 3. William Schabas, “The Greatest Crime,” Washington Times, Dec. 7, 1998.
page 157 note 4. “Woman Charged with Rape by Rwanda Genocide Tribunal,” Pan African News Agency, August 13, 1999.
page 157 note 5. Ibid.
page 157 note 6. Adama Dieng, “Views And Suggestions Concerning the 1948 Geneva Convention On Genocide,” paper presented to IPEP, March 1, 2000.
page 157 note 7. Samuel Totten, et al. (ed.), Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views (New York: Garland Publishers, 1997).
page 157 note 8. Adam Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998).
page 160 note 1 Howard Adelman, “Genocidists and Saviours in Rwanda,” Books in Canada, March 1999.
page 160 note 2 Uvin.
page 160 note 3 “United Nations Independent Inquiry”, December 1999, 39-40.
page 160 note 4 UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Lessons Learned Unit, Comprehensive report on Lessons Learned from UNAMIR [UN Assistance Mission to Rwanda, October 1993-April 1996, December 1996, 3.
page 160 note 5 Ibid., 40.
page 160 note 6 Dallaire and Bruce Poulin, “Rwanda: From Peace Agreement to Genocide,” Canadian Defence Quarterly, 24, no. 3, March 1995.
page 160 note 7 Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Preventing Deadly Conflict (New York: Carnegie Corporation, December 1997), 39.
page 160 note 8 Feil, Scott R., “Preventing Genocide: How the Early Use of Force Might Have Succeeded in Rwanda” (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1998).Google Scholar
page 160 note 9 Ibid., 3.
page 160 note 10 Alan Kuperman, “Rwanda in Retrospect: Could the Genocide Have Been Stopped?” Foreign Affairs, January/February 2000, 94-95; Alison Des Forges, “Alas, We Knew,” Kuperman replies in “Shame: Rationalizing Western Apathy on Rwanda,” Foreign Affairs, 79, no. 3, May/June 2000, 141-144.
page 160 note 11 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,21;” Security Council resolution adjusting UNAMIR's mandate and authorizing a reduction in its strength,” S/RES/912 (1994), 21 April 1994.
page 160 note 12 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,12.
page 160 note 13 Dallaire and Poulin, op. Cit.
page 160 note 14 Astri Suhrke, “Dilemmas of Protection: The Log of the Kigali Battalion,” in Adelman and Suhrke (eds.), The Path of a Genocide, 267.
page 160 note 15 Des Forges, 618.
page 160 note 16 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 17.
page 160 note 17 Ibid.
page 160 note 18 Des Forges, 629.
page 160 note 19 “Security Council resolution expanding UNAMIR to 5,000 troops and mandating UNAMIR II to provide security to displaced persons, refugees and civilians at risk and to support relief efforts, and imposing an arms embargo on Rwanda,” S/RES/918 (1994), 17 May 1994.
page 160 note 20 James Woods, Frontline interview.
page 167 note 1 Organization of African Unity, “Resolving Conflicts in Africa: Proposal for Action,” (OAU: OAU Press and Information Series 1,1992).
page 167 note 2 OAU Secretary-General, “Report of the Secretary-General on Conflicts in Africa,” 1992,9.
page 167 note 3 “Addis Ababa Declaration,” 11 July 1990, 3.
page 167 note 4 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, 1969.
page 167 note 5 Pascal Ngoga, “The Tragic Consequences of the Unresolved Refugee Problem,” IPEP commissioned paper, 1999,25.
page 167 note 6 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but prefers to remain anonymous.
page 167 note 7 OAU, “Background Information,” 5.
page 167 note 8 Ibid., 19.
page 167 note 9 Ibid., 28.
page 167 note 10 “Communiqué issued at the end of a regional summit meeting held in Dar Es Salaam on 6 April 1994 on the Situation Prevailing in Burundi and Rwanda.“
page 176 note 1 Assemblée rationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 25.
page 176 note 2 St-Exupéry, 24.
page 176 note 3 The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Remarks by the President to Genocide Survivors, Assistance Workers, and U.S. and Rwanda Officials,” Kigali Airport, Kigali, Rwanda, 25 March 1998 (www.whitehouse.gov/africa/19980325-16872.html)
page 176 note 4 Charles Trueheart, “French Leaders from 1994 Defend Rwanda Policy,” International Herald Tribune, 22 April 1998, 1.
page 176 note 5 “France and Rwanda: Humanitarian?,” The Economist, 25 April 1998, 48; Trueheart, 1.
page 176 note 6 Assemblée nationale de France, Mission d'information commune (Paul Quilès, Président), Enquête sur la tragédie rwandaise (1990-1994), Tome 1 Rapport, Tome 2 Annexes, Tome 3 vols.1-2 Auditions, rapport no. 1271 (France: Assemblée nationale, 15 décembre 1998).
page 176 note 7 Ibid., Tome 1 Rapport, 342.
page 176 note 8 Daily Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 17 Dec. 1998.
page 176 note 9 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 355-359.
page 176 note 10 Ibid., 334.
page 176 note 11 Le Monde (France), 17 December 1998.
page 176 note 12 T.H. Atienga, “France denies responsibility for Rwanda genocide,” Inter Press Service, 16 December 1998.
page 176 note 13 Callamard, “French Policy in Rwanda“; Adelman, “Role of Non-African States“; Asteris Huliaris, “The ‘anglosaxon conspiracy’: French perceptions of the Great Lakes crisis,” Journal of Modern African Studies, 36, no.4; Daniel Bourmaud, “France in Africa: African Politics and French Foreign Policy,” Issues: A Journal of Opinion, 23, no.2 (1995); Marlise Simons, “France's Rwanda Connections.“ The New York Times, 3 July 1994, 6; Christopher Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival, Cambridge Studies in International Relations, no.50, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 1996).
page 176 note 14 For example, see Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 3, vol. 1 Auditions, 198 (presentations by Hubert Védrine); and Ibid., Tome 3, vol. 2 Auditions, 223 (presentation by Edith Cresson).
page 176 note 15 A civil cooperation agreement (accord de coopération civile) was signed on 7 December 1962, and a military cooperation agreement (accord de coopération militaire) was signed on 18 July 1975. Ibid., Tome 1 Rapport, 19.
page 176 note 16 Callamard, p. 169.
page 176 note 17 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 26-27.
page 176 note 18 Ibid., 28.
page 176 note 19 Ibid., Tome 3, vol.1 Auditions, 229.
page 176 note 20 Clapham, “Perils of Peacemaking.“
page 176 note 21 Trueheart, 7.
page 176 note 22 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 3, vol. 1 Auditions, 368.
page 176 note 23 Telegram from Georges Martres, French Ambassador to Rwanda, dated 27 October 1990. Ibid., Tome 1 Rapport, 135.
page 176 note 24 Ibid., 36.
page 177 note 25 IPEP interview with a knowledgeable observer.
page 177 note 26 Des Forges, 121.
page 177 note 27 Prunier, 176.
page 177 note 28 Ibid.; Des Forges, 121.
page 177 note 29 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 10.
page 177 note 30 Prunier, 147.
page 177 note 31 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 342.
page 177 note 32 Prunier, 178.
page 177 note 33 Des Forges, interview.
page 177 note 34 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 11.
page 177 note 35 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 137, 172.
page 177 note 36 Trueheart.
page 177 note 37 Prunier, 106, 111; Des Forges, 117.
page 177 note 38 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 75.
page 177 note 39 Ibid., 152,163; Prunier 149.
page 177 note 40 Prunier, 110-111; Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 152, 161-163, 172-175.
page 177 note 41 Ogenga Otunnu, “Rwandese Refugees and Immigrants in Uganda,” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide, 14-15.
page 177 note 42 Rémy Ourdan, “France Exonerates Itself Over Rwanda,” Guardian Weekly (London), 27 December 1998.
page 177 note 43 Millwood, Study 1,41.
page 177 note 44 Simons, 6.
page 177 note 45 Wood, Brian and Peleman, Johan, “The Arms Fixers,” British American Security Council, London, 1999 Google Scholar
page 177 note 46 Braeckman, Colette, Rwanda: Histoire d'un génocide (Paris: Fayard, 1994), 149.Google Scholar
page 177 note 47 Prunier, 113,148-149.
page 177 note 48 “France and Rwanda: humanitarian?,” The Economist, 25 April 1998.
page 177 note 49 Callamard, “French Policy in Rwanda,” 174.
page 177 note 50 Prunier, 110-111; Assemblee nationale, mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 152, 161-163, 172-175.
page 177 note 51 *
page 177 note 52 The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Remarks by the President to Genocide Survivors.“
page 177 note 53 Richard N. Haas, “The Squandered Presidency: demanding more from the Commander-in-Chief,” Foreign Affairs, 79, no. 3, May/June 2000.
page 177 note 54 Millwood, Study 2, 36.
page 177 note 55 Des Forges, 176.
page 177 note 56 Human Rights Watch, “Arming Rwanda,” 17.
page 177 note 57 Frontline interview.
page 177 note 58 Herman Cohen, presentation to IPEP panel, 1999.
page 178 note 59 James Woods, Frontline interview, Tony Marley, Political Military Advisor for the U.S. State Department from 1992-95, Frontline interview.
page 178 note 60 James Woods, Frontline interview.
page 178 note 61 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, Unvanquished: A US-UN Saga (New York: Random House,1999).Google Scholar
page 178 note 62 Ibid.
page 178 note 63 Ibid.
page 178 note 64 James Woods, Frontline interview.
page 178 note 65 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.
page 178 note 66 Tony Marley, Frontline interview.
page 178 note 67 Gourevitch, Philip, We wish to inform you that tomorrow we will be killed with our families. Stories from Rwanda (New York: Fairer Strauss & Giro, 1998), 150.Google Scholar
page 178 note 68 Alan Kuperman in the Washington Post, 24 December 1998.
page 178 note 69 Adelman,” Role of Non-African States”, 1.
page 178 note 70 Ibid., 18-19.
page 178 note 71 Senat de Belgique, rapport fait au nom de la commission d'enquête par MM. Mahoux et Verhofstadt, session de 1997-1998, Commission d'enquête parlementaire concernant les événements du Rwanda, no.1-611/7, annexes no. 1-611/8 a 15, (Belgique: Sénat de Belgique, 6 décembre 1997), 525; Des Forges, 177; Millwood, Study 2,44.
page 178 note 72 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.
page 178 note 73 Ibid.
page 178 note 74 “Triumph of Evil”, the Frontline documentary.
page 178 note 75 Tony Marley, Frontline interview.
page 178 note 76 Ibid.
page 178 note 77 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.
page 178 note 78 Ibid.
page 178 note 79 “Why no Rwanda,” The New Republic editorial, 16 May 1994.
page 178 note 80 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1126.
page 178 note 81 Philip Gourevitch, Frontline interview.
page 178 note 82 American Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), This Week, transcript, 23 January 2000.
page 187 note 1 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,1.
page 187 note 2 Ibid., 49.
page 187 note 3 Ibid., 28.
page 187 note 4 Ibid., 34.
page 187 note 5 Ibid., 42.
page 187 note 6 Ibid., 26.
page 187 note 7 Ibid.
page 187 note 8 Ibid., 45.
page 187 note 9 Ibid., 47.
page 187 note 10 Ibid.
page 187 note 11 Ibid., 17.
page 187 note 12 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel and asked to remain anonymous.
page 187 note 13 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 56.
page 187 note 14 Millwood, Study 2, 27.
page 187 note 15 As related to the Panel by an academic, 3 March 1999.
page 187 note 16 Millwood, Study 2, 36. (from a statement by the Secretary General, S/24688/1993, par. 65)
page 187 note 17 Des Forges, 131.
page 187 note 18 Romeo Dallaire, Gen. & Poulin, Bruce, “Rwanda: From Peace Agreement to Genocide,” Canadian Defence Quarterly, 24, no.3 (March 1995): 8.Google Scholar
page 187 note 19 A knowledgeable observer; General Henry Kwami Anyidoho, Guns Over Kigali: The Rwandese Civil War (Accra, Ghana: Woeli Publishing, 1999): 8.
page 187 note 20 General Dallaire.
page 187 note 21 Edwards, Steven, “Dallaire's Story: UN Failed Rwanda,” National Post (Canada), 17 December 1999.Google ScholarPubMed
page 188 note 22 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 29.
page 188 note 23 General Dallaire.
page 188 note 24 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999.
page 188 note 25 General Dallaire.
page 188 note 26 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 3.
page 188 note 27 Ibid., 4-5.
page 188 note 28 Compare articles Bl, B3, B4 of the Arusha Accords with Articles 3A and 3H of Security Council resolution 872 of 5 October 1993. Des Forges, 142.
page 188 note 29 Ibid.
page 188 note 30 Ibid.
page 188 note 31 Department of Peacekeeping Operations, Lessons Learned Unit, Comprehensive Report on Lessons Learned from UNAMIR, October 1993-April 1996, New York, October 1996, 3.
page 188 note 32 Ibid., 133.
page 188 note 33 It can be found in full on the web site of the 1998 Frontline programme, “The Triumph of Evil“; Philip Gourevitch, “The Genocide Fax,” The New Yorker, 11 May 1998.
page 188 note 34 Col. Luc Marchal, Frontline interview.
page 188 note 35 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 6.
page 188 note 36 Ibid., 31.
page 188 note 37 Bjørn Willum, “Legitimizing Inaction Towards Genocide in Rwanda: A Matter of Misperception?,” Paper presented at the Third International Conference of the Association of Genocide Scholars, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI (USA), 13-15 June 1999, 7-9.
page 188 note 38 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but wishes to remain anonymous.
page 188 note 39 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but wishes to remain anonymous.
page 188 note 40 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 6.
page 188 note 41 Ibid., Annex 1, 2.
page 188 note 42 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but wishes to remain anonymous.
page 188 note 43 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 23.
page 188 note 44 Tony Marley, Frontline interview.
page 188 note 45 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but wishes to remain anonymous.
page 188 note 46 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 7.
page 188 note 47 Col. Luc Marchal, Frontline interview.
page 188 note 48 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 31-32.
page 188 note 49 Ogenga Otunnu, “An Historical Analysis of the Invasion by the Rwanda Patriotic Army (RPA),” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide, 38.
page 188 note 50 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 8.
page 188 note 51 Ibid.
page 188 note 52 Anyidoho, Guns Over Kigali.
page 188 note 53 Willum, 5.
page 189 note 54 Howard Adelman, “Canadian Policy in Rwanda,” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide, 198-199.
page 189 note 55 Willy Claes, “Letterdated 14 March 1994 from the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Belgium to the Secretary-General expressing concern that the worsening situation in Rwanda may impede UNAMIR's capacity to fulfil its mandate,” in UN Dept. of Public Information, The United Nations and Rwanda (1993-1996), document 34, 244.
page 189 note 56 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 11.
page 189 note 57 Ibid., Annex 1, 6.
page 189 note 58 As a knowledgeable observer who wishes to remain anonymous told the Panel.
page 189 note 59 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 9.
page 189 note 60 Willum, 5.
page 189 note 61 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, Annex 1,7.
page 189 note 62 UN Security Council, Press release SC/6809-20000224, Security Council expands mission in DRC, unanimously adopting resolution 1291 (2000), 24 February 2000.
page 189 note 63 UN Secretary-General, “Statement on Receiving the Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda,” 16 December 1999.
page 204 note 1 Des Forges, 598.
page 204 note 2 James Woods, Frontline interview.
page 204 note 3 Des Forges, 598.
page 204 note 4 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 14.
page 204 note 5 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 rapport, 344.
page 204 note 6 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 17.
page 204 note 7 “The Triumph of Evil,” PBS Frontline, USA, 1995; “Rwanda: triumph of a Genocide,” CBC, Prime Time Magazine, Canada, 1994; “Rwanda: the Betrayal,” Channel 4, UK, 1995; “The Bloody Tricolour”, Panorama, BBC, UK, 1995.
page 204 note 8 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 18.
page 204 note 9 Ibid.
page 204 note 10 A knowledgeable observer.
page 204 note 11 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 23.
page 204 note 12 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 16-17; Cynthia McKinney, “Two Families, One Genocide, and the United Nations: Two Families, Victims of Rwanda Genocide, Seek Reparations from the United Nations for UN Complicity in Murders During the 1994 Rwandan Genocide,” Newsletter from U.S. Congresswoman C. McKinney, 15 December 1999.
page 204 note 13 Anyidoho, chapter. 5.
page 204 note 14 James Woods, Frontline interview.
page 204 note 15 Ibid.
page 204 note 16 Cited in US Committee For Refugees, “Rwanda: Genocide and the Continuing Cycle of Violence,” presentation to the US House of Representatives Committee on International relations, Sub-Committee on International Operations and Human Rights, May 5, 1998.
page 204 note 17 Ibid.
page 205 note 18 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1120.
page 205 note 19 Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 53/35: The Fall of Srebrenica, 15 November 1999,110-111.
page 205 note 20 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 46.
page 205 note 21 Willum, 10,15.
page 205 note 22 Security Council Document: 49th year, 3377th meeting, Monday 16 May 1994 (S/PV.3377), 5.
page 205 note 23 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1137.
page 205 note 24 UN Independent Inquiry, Recommendation 12, 51.
page 205 note 25 Michael Barnett, U.S. Mission to the UN 1994, Frontline interview.
page 205 note 26 United Nations Secretary-General, “Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Rwanda, reporting on the political mission he sent to Rwanda to move the warring parties towards a cease-fire and recommending that the expanded mandate for UNAMIR be authorized for an initial period of six months,” S/1994/640 (31 May 1994), para.5.
page 205 note 27 Ibid., par.43.
page 205 note 28 James Woods, Frontline interview.
page 205 note 29 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1130.
page 205 note 30 General Romeo Dallaire, “The End of Innocence: Rwanda 1994,” in Moore, Jonathan (ed.), Hard Choices: Moral Dilemmas in Humanitarian Intervention (Langham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998).Google Scholar
page 205 note 31 A knowledgeable observer.
page 205 note 32 Frontline interview.
page 205 note 33 United Nations Secretary-General, “Statement on Receiving the Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations during the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda,” 16 December 1999.
page 205 note 34 “Triumph of Evil,” Frontline, Chronology.
page 205 note 35 Ibid.
page 205 note 36 Iqbal Riza, Frontline interview.
page 205 note 37 Ibid.
page 205 note 38 Tom Longman, “State, Civil Society and Genocide in Rwanda,” in Joseph, Richard (ed.), State, Conflict and Democracy in Africa (Boulder, Colorado: L. Rienner, 1999).Google Scholar
page 205 note 39 Ibrahim Gambari, “Guns over Kigali: A Review Article on the Rwandan Genocide,” West Africa, 19 (October-1 November 1998): 747.
page 205 note 40 Col. Luc Marchal, Frontline interview.
page 205 note 41 Prunier, 107.
page 205 note 42 Colette Braeckman.
page 205 note 43 Sénat de Belgique, “Rapport,” 6 December 1997.
page 205 note 44 Philip Gourevitch, Frontline interview.
page 205 note 45 Des Forges, 620.
page 205 note 46 Ibid., 615.
page 205 note 47 Colette Braeckman interview.
page 205 note 48 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,43.
page 205 note 49 Des Forges, 618.
page 205 note 50 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 44.
page 206 note 51 Des Forges, 620.
page 206 note 52 Ibid.
page 206 note 53 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 6.
page 206 note 54 “Rwanda: Autopsy of a Genocide,” CBC, Canada, 1994.
page 206 note 55 Des Forges, 177; Millwood, Study 2,44; Sénat de Belgique, “Rapport,” 6 December 1997, 525.
page 206 note 56 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.
page 206 note 57 Lt. Luc Lemaire, Frontline interview.
page 206 note 58 IRIN, Belgian Premier apologizes, 7 April 2000.
page 206 note 59 Gérard Prunier, “Operation Turquoise: A Humanitarian Escape from a Political Dead End,” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide
page 206 note 60 Prunier, “Operation Turquoise.“
page 206 note 61 Interview with Dr. Bradol in “The Bloody Tricolour,” BBC Panorama, 28 August 1995.
page 206 note 62 Des Forges, 613; Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 268.
page 206 note 63 Callamard, 176.
page 206 note 64 Col. Luc Marchal, interview on BBC Panorama television documentary, “When Good Men do Nothing,” August 1994; Jean de la Gueriviere, “Un officier beige maintient ses déclarations sur l'attitude de la France lors du génocide rwandais,” Le Monde (France), 23 July 1995.
page 206 note 65 Prunier, 281.
page 206 note 66 Des Forges, 668.
page 206 note 67 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 13.
page 206 note 68 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, 47.
page 206 note 69 Organisation of African Unity, “The OAU and Rwanda, Background Information,” document presented to IPEP, November 1999, 35-39.
page 206 note 70 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1142.
page 206 note 71 “Not the Ideal Candidate to Intervene,” Le Monde (France), 23 June 1994.
page 206 note 72 Prunier, 287 (note 14).
page 206 note 73 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,47.
page 206 note 74 Boutros-Ghali, Unvanquished.
page 206 note 75 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999,47.
page 206 note 76 Prunier, 291.
page 206 note 77 OAU, “OAU and Rwanda,” 36.
page 206 note 78 “United Nations Independent Inquiry,” December 1999, Annex 1, 15.
page 206 note 79 Millwood, Study 2, 54-55.
page 206 note 80 Raymond Bonner, “French establish a base in Rwanda to block rebels,” The New York Times, 5 July 1994.
page 206 note 81 Adelman, “Role of Non-African States,” 12; Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 294.
page 206 note 82 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1148-1150.
page 206 note 83 McGreal, Chris, “French compromised by collaboration in Rwanda,” The Guardian (London), 1 July 1994.Google Scholar
page 206 note 84 Ibid.
page 207 note 85 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 325.
page 207 note 86 Ibid., Tome 2 Annexes, 454.
page 207 note 87 Des Forges, 687.
page 207 note 88 McGreal, Chris, “French accused of protecting killers,” The Guardian (London), 27 August 1994.Google Scholar
page 207 note 89 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 172.
page 207 note 90 Prunier, 278.
page 207 note 91 Human Rights Watch (Arms Project), “Rearming with impunity: International support for the perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide,” 1995.
page 207 note 92 Assemblée nationale, Mission d'information commune, Tome 1 Rapport, 172.
page 207 note 93 Des Forges, 688.
page 207 note 94 “France intervened in Rwanda to curb Anglo-Saxon axis,” The Times (London), 23 August 1994.
page 207 note 95 Prunier, 337.
page 207 note 96 Huliaris, 595.
page 207 note 97 Prunier, 339.
page 207 note 98 African Rights, Death, Despair, 1154.
page 207 note 99 Prunier, 339.
page 207 note 100 Le Monde (France), 29 December 1994.
page 207 note 101 David Newbury, “Convergent Catastrophes in Central Africa,” Nov. 1996.
page 207 note 102 Bonaventure Rutinwa, “The Aftermath of the Rwanda Genocide in the Great Lakes Region,” IPEP commissioned paper, 1999.
page 207 note 103 Statement of the Central Organ of the OAU Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, Addis Ababa, April 14, 1994.
page 207 note 104 Press statement of the OAU Secretary-General on the Tragic Situation in Rwanda and on the proposed peace conference in Arusha, Tanzania, April 19, 1994.
page 207 note 105 Letter from the OAU Secretary-General to the Secretary-General of the UN, May 5,1995, CAB/RWANDa/1994.
page 207 note 106 Salim Salim to Boutros-Ghali, 21 April 1994.
page 207 note 107 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but prefers to remain anonymous.
page 207 note 108 OAU, “Background Information,” 35-39.
page 207 note 109 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but prefers to remain anonymous.
page 219 note 1 Prunier, 342.
page 219 note 2 Prunier, 343 footnote 65.
page 219 note 3 Amnesty International, “News Release, AI Index: AFR:47/13/97,” 8 April 1997.
page 219 note 4 Prunier, 343 footnote 65.
page 219 note 5 DesForges, 286, 642, and 768.
page 219 note 6 Ibid., 768.
page 219 note 7 As seen on “Rwanda: the Betrayal,” presented by Lindsey Hilsum, Channel 4 Television, UK, 1995.
page 219 note 8 Daniel Licht, “L'eglise protégé des abbés implique dans les massacres,” Golias, 2 avril 1999.
page 219 note 9 Ibid.
page 219 note 10 Alison DesForges interview; EIU Country Report, “Rwanda”, 4th Quarter 1999 (Economist Intelligence Unit, 1999), 13; McGreal, Chris, “Bishop's trial puts Church on dock for Rwanda massacre”, Guardian Weekly (London), 26 August-1 September 1999 Google Scholar; Tom Masland, “The Bishop in the Dock”, Newsweek, 27 September 1999.
page 219 note 11 See the ICT Y Statute and ICTR Statute, which specifically states that the mandate of the ICTY would be expanded to include the Court in Arusha. DesForges, 738.
page 219 note 12 Gourevitch, We wish to Inform You, 253.
page 219 note 13 DesForges, 762.
page 219 note 14 Preamble to the ICTR Statute.
page 219 note 15 DesForges, 741.
page 220 note 16 Amnesty International, “International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Trials and Tribulations”, April 1998.
page 220 note 17 Scheffer, David J., US Policy on International criminal Tribunals, address at Washington College of Law, American University, Washington, DC, March 31, 1998, 4.Google Scholar
page 220 note 18 Taylor, Telford, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir (London: Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd., 1993)Google Scholar, Appendix.
page 220 note 19 See ICTR Fact Sheet No.l: The Tribunal at a Glance, found at website:. www.ictr.org/English/factsheets.htm.
page 220 note 20 Ibid.
page 220 note 21 Ibid.
page 220 note 22 ICTR, Judgement 96-4-T.
page 220 note 23 DesForges, 744.
page 220 note 24 Pan African News Agency, “Woman Charged with Rape by Rwanda Genocide Tribunal,” 13 August 1999.
page 220 note 25 Reyntjens, Filip, “Talking or Fighting: Political Evolution in Rwanda and Burundi, 1998-1999,” Current Affairs, 21(1999): 12–13.Google Scholar
page 220 note 26 Bagosora, Theoneste, L'assassinat du Président Habyarimana ou I'ultime opération du Tutsi pour sa reconquête du pouvoirpar la force au Rwanda (Yaounde, Cameroon, 1995).Google Scholar
page 220 note 27 ICTR, “The Prosecutor versus Jean Kambanda”, 97-23-S, 4 September 1998.
page 220 note 28 Foundation Hirondelle, “Former Rwandan Militia Leader Gets Life Sentence for Genocide,” 6 December 1999.
page 220 note 29 “Rutaganda convicted of genocide and sentenced to life imprisonment”, ICTR/TNFO 9-2-216en, Arusha, 6 December 1999.
page 220 note 30 Foundation Hirondelle, “Rutaganda's Lawyer to Appeal Rwanda Tribunal Verdict,” 6 December 1999.
page 220 note 31 Vandeginste, 7.
page 220 note 32 “Sealed pact to be disclosed after Prime Minister is sentenced, Registry says”, FH Wire Service, 1 September 1998.
page 220 note 33 Ibid.
page 220 note 34 Ibid.
page 220 note 35 ICTR, “Notice of Appeal”, Case 97-23-S, 7 September 1998.
page 220 note 36 “Former Rwandan Prime Minister sentenced to life for genocide insists upon the lawyer of his choice”, FH Wire Service, 14 October 1998.
page 220 note 37 Ibid.
page 220 note 38 Foundation Hirondelle, “Former Rwandan Prime Minister Pleads Guilty Before UN Court, Background,” 21 August 1998.
page 220 note 39 Interviews with Carol Off, a Canadian journalist soon to publish a book about Arusha; “Former Prime Minister wants to retract guilty plea”, FH Wire Service, 6 January 2000; “Defence Attorneys critical of Jean Kambanda's guilty plea before the ICTR”, Press release, 4 May 1998.
page 220 note 40 Vandeginste, 9.
page 220 note 41 See Amnesty International, “Rwanda: The hidden violence: “disappearances” and killings continue,” 23 June 1998, AI Index: AFR47/23/98.
page 220 note 42 Amnesty International, “News Release, Ai Index: AFR:47/13/97,” 8 April 1997.
page 220 note 43 The new law was passed 30 August 1996. DesForges, 750.
page 220 note 44 Organic Law No. 8/96, 30 August 1996. Published in the Gazette of the Republic of Rwanda, 35th year, no.17, 1 September 1996.
page 220 note 45 Report prepared for IPEP by the Rwanda National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, “Some efforts made by the Government to build a new society based on national unity and reconciliation,” February 2000.
page 220 note 46 DesForges, 753: also see Reyntjens, “Talking or Fighting?,” 11.
page 220 note 47 National Film Board of Canada, “Chronicle of a genocide foretold”, The Rwanda Series, vol.3, 1996.
page 221 note 48 Amnesty International, Rwanda: the Troubled Course of Justice, 26 April 2000.
page 221 note 49 Vandeginste, 11.
page 221 note 50 Reyntjens, “Talking or Fighting?” 11.
page 221 note 51 Reyntjens, “Talking or Fighting” ,11.
page 221 note 52 DesForges, 757.
page 221 note 53 DesForges, 754.
page 221 note 54 Ibid.
page 221 note 55 DesForges, 761.
page 221 note 56 DesForges, 757; also see Avocats Sans Frontières, “Justice for All in Rwanda, Annual Report 1998,” to be found at website: http://www.asf.be/frans/archives/e_rw anda98.htm.
page 221 note 57 Vandeginste, 14.
page 221 note 58 Ibid., 11-12.
page 221 note 59 DesForges, 750.
page 221 note 60 Ibid., 761.
page 221 note 61 Ibid.
page 221 note 62 See John Pendergast and David Smock, “Postgenocidal Reconstruction: Building Peace in Rwanda and Burundi,” Special Report for the United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC, September 15, 1999, 17.
page 221 note 63 Vandeginste, 14-16.
page 221 note 64 Amnesty International, Rwanda: the Troubled Course of Justice, 26 April 2000.
page 221 note 65 Vandeginste, 28.
page 221 note 66 Ibid.
page 221 note 67 Ibid., 15.
page 221 note 68 A knowledgeable observer.
page 221 note 69 Pomfret, John, “Rwandans led revolt in Congo; Defence Minister says arms, troops, supplied for anti-Mobutu drive,” Washington Post, 9 July 1997.Google Scholar
page 221 note 70 Tillou, Susan Lynne, UN Transitional Administration in East Timor, “The Path to justice in East Timor,” Toronto Star,Maich 16,2000.Google Scholar
page 221 note 71 Meredith, Martin, Coming to terms: South Africa's search for truth (New York: Public Affairs, 1999).Google Scholar
page 221 note 72 Tina Rosenberg, “Afterword: Confronting the painful past,” in Ibid., ix.
page 221 note 73 Meredith, 318-319.
page 221 note 74 Mahmood Mamdani, “Reconciliation without Justice,” Southern African Review of Books, (Nov-Dec 1996): 3-5.
page 221 note 75 Meredith, 112, 318, 319.
page 221 note 76 Ibid., 321.
page 221 note 77 Tony Waters, “Conventional wisdom and Rwanda's genocide: An opinion”, African Studies Quarterly, taken from “Relief Web”, 9 December 1997,4.
page 221 note 78 Mamdani, Mahmood, “From conquest to consent on the basis of state formation: Reflections on Rwanda”, New Left Review, 216 (1996): 3–36.Google Scholar
page 221 note 79 Ibid.
page 226 note 1 OAU, “Background Information,” 42.
page 226 note 2 Ibid., 44.
page 226 note 3 Ibid.
page 226 note 4 Pomfret, John, “Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo; Defense Minister Says Arms, Troops, supplied for anti-Mobutu Drive,” Washington Post, 9 July 1997.Google Scholar
page 226 note 5 OAU, “Background Information,” 45-49.
page 226 note 6 A knowledgeable observer who met with the Panel but prefers to remain anonymous.
page 226 note 7 OAU First Ministerial Conference on Human rights in Africa, Grand Bay (Mauritius) Declaration and Plan of Action, April 1999, CONF/HRA/DECL (I).
page 226 note 8 General Dallaire meeting with the Panel.
page 226 note 9 OAU document: Draft Report — OAU/CHST/CO/RPT (II).
page 226 note 10 Ibid.
page 226 note 11 OAU, Declaration of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government on the Establishment, within the OAU, of a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution.
page 226 note 12 International Institute for Strategic Studies, “The Military Balance 1999/2000. Country by Country Analysis,” 1999.
page 226 note 13 Bonaventure Rutinwa, seminar with IPEP Chairman Masire and IPEP Secretariat, July 1999.
page 226 note 14 International Institute for Strategic Studies.
page 226 note 15 Amare Tekle, “The OAU: Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution,” in Adelman et al. (eds.), Path of a Genocide, 128-129.
page 226 note 16 Alex de Waal (ed.), “The Persistence of War in Africa” and “Structures for Regional Peace and Security,” papers prepared for the Conference on Humanitarian and Political Challenges in Africa, Kigali (Rwanda), 12-14 October 1999.
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