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Remedying the environmental impacts of war: Challenges and perspectives for full reparation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 July 2023

Lingjie Kong
Affiliation:
Professor of International Law, Institute for International Studies, Wuhan University, China
Yuqing Zhao*
Affiliation:
PhD candidate, China Institute of Boundary and Ocean Studies, Wuhan University, China
*
*Corresponding author email: yuqing.zhao@whu.edu.cn

Abstract

While the law of State responsibility, particularly the principle of full reparation, provides general guidance for achieving full reparation, it is not quite obvious what kinds of reparation qualify as “full” and how to actualize full reparation. This article centres on the principles, approaches and methods surrounding full reparation for armed conflict-related environmental damage in the law of State responsibility. It examines how the environment is legally defined as an object of protection under international law, and discusses practical challenges in international compensation for wartime environmental damage. In doing so, it ascertains the underlying objective of full reparation, develops an approach to assessing wartime environmental damage, and draws on experiences of international jurisprudence to quantify compensation for wartime environmental damage.

Type
Accountability and Remedies
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC

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Footnotes

The advice, opinions and statements contained in this article are those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICRC. The ICRC does not necessarily represent or endorse the accuracy or reliability of any advice, opinion, statement or other information provided in this article.

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51 ICJ, Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, ICJ Reports 2012 (I), para. 14; ICJ, Certain Activities, above note 34, para. 72; ICJ, Armed Activities, above note 34, para. 145.

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53 ICRC, Strengthening Legal Protection for Victims of Armed Conflicts, Geneva, 2011, p. 18.

54 Cymie R. Payne, “Environmental Claims in Context: Overview of the Institution”, in Cymie R. Payne and Peter H. Sand (eds), Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission: Environmental Liability, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011, p. 6.

55 Rule 44 of the ICRC Customary Law Study provides: “Methods and means of warfare must be employed with due regard to the protection and preservation of the natural environment. In the conduct of military operations, all feasible precautions must be taken to avoid, and in any event to minimize, incidental damage to the environment. Lack of scientific certainty as to the effects on the environment of certain military operations does not absolve a party to the conflict from taking such precautions.” Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck (eds), Customary International Humanitarian Law, Vol. 1: Rules, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005 (ICRC Customary Law Study), Rule 44, available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/customary-ihl/rules. See also ILC Draft Principles, above note 6, Principle 14 and para. 8 of the commentary.

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59 UNCC, Report and Recommendations Made by the Panel of Commissioners Concerning the First Instalment of “F4” Claims, UN Doc. S/AC.26/2001/16, 22 June 2001, para. 32.

60 Ibid., para. 17.

61 UNCC, above note 47, para. 32. See also Larraine Wilde, “Scientific and Technical Advice: The Perspective of Iraq's Experts”, in C. R. Payne and P. H. Sand (eds), above note 54, p. 97; Peter H. Sand, “Environmental Principles Applied”, in C. R. Payne and P. H. Sand (eds), above note 54, p. 179.

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66 P. Gautier, above note 46, p. 209.

67 UNCC, above note 59, para. 34.

68 UNCC, Part One of the Fourth Instalment, above note 49, paras 333–336.

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100 ICJ, Certain Activities, above note 34, para. 42.

101 ICJ, Armed Activities, above note 34, para. 348. However, the claim for environmental damage resulting from deforestation was dismissed on the ground that the Democratic Republic of the Congo did not provide any basis for assessing damage to the environment, in particular to biodiversity, through deforestation, and the Court was thus unable to determine the extent of injury, even on an approximate basis. Ibid., para. 350.

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107 C. R. Payne, above note 50, pp. 737–738.

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113 A. Dienelt, above note 8, pp. 260–264.

114 See e.g. UNCC, above note 32, paras 519–522, 710–713.

115 See e.g. ibid., paras 274–277, 687–692.

116 See e.g. ibid., paras 282–285, 503–505, 701–704.

117 Ibid., para. 68.

118 Peter H. Sand and James K. Hammitt, “Public Health Claims”, in C. R. Payne and P. H. Sand (eds), above note 54, p. 215.

119 ICJ, Diallo, above note 51, paras 21, 24, 33.

120 Permanent Court of Arbitration, Trail Smelter Case (United States, Canada), 16 April 1938 and 11 March 1941, UNRIAA 3, p. 1920.

121 ICJ, Certain Activities, above note 34, para. 35.

122 ICJ, Armed Activities, above note 34, para. 106.

123 ICJ, Certain Activities, above note 34, para. 31; ibid., Declaration of Judge Gevorgian, para. 9.

124 UNEP, above note 4, p. 6.