2 Nihad Čengić, art conservator and then staff member of the Office for the Protection of Cultural Property, Sarajevo, quoted in Bill Schiller, “Bosnian Artists Save Heritage Treasures”, Toronto Star, 15 May 1993, p. A10.

3 Enis Tanović, speaking at Gacko, 7 May 2014, quoted in “Dan džamija: U Gacku su od Dejtona do danas dvije džamije dva puta obnavljane”, Klix, 7 May 2014, available at: https://tinyurl.com/y4zfs5xj (all internet references were accessed in July 2019).

4 General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, also known as the Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA) or Dayton Accords, available at https://peacemaker.un.org/bosniadaytonagreement95.

5 See for instance, UNESCO heritage expert Édouard Planche quoted in James Reinle, “UN Unable to Stop IS Relic-Smuggling from Iraq and Syria”, Middle East Eye, 4 June 2015, available at: www.middleeasteye.net/news/un-unable-stop-relic-smuggling-iraq-and-syria.

6 For a fuller account of the trajectory of the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina, see Marko Attila Hoare, The History of Bosnia: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day, Saqi, London, 2007.

7 For a fuller account, see H. Walasek, above note 1.

8 For more information, see Helen Walasek, “Destruction of the Cultural Heritage in Bosnia-Herzegovina: An Overview”, in ibid.

9 See H. Walasek, above note 1.

10 Young, Kirsten, “UNHCR and ICRC in the Former Yugoslavia: Bosnia-Herzegovina”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 83, No. 843, 2001, pp. 784–786Google Scholar; Maria Teresa Dutli, Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict: Report on the Meeting of Experts (Geneva, 5–6 October 2000), International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law, Geneva, 2002.

11 According to the figures of the Islamic Community of Bosnia-Herzegovina. See “Dan dzamija”, 6 May 2015, available at: www.islamskazajednica.ba/vijesti/aktuelno/22237-dan-dzamija. Of course, many religious structures with no architectural or historic values were also destroyed as part of the same processes. In contrast, around 233 Catholic and seventy Orthodox churches (including monasteries) were destroyed or badly damaged during the conflict.

12 Herceg-Bosnia ceased to exist upon the signing of the Washington Agreement in March 1994, which ended the fighting. The Agreement created the Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, the so-called Muslim-Croat Federation. During the conflict, however, the separatists received substantial support from Croatia and the Croatian Army. The HVO was the military force of Herceg-Bosna.

13 Few Bosnian Serb residents remained by that time, as most had either fled or been expelled.

14 See H. Walasek, above note 1, for a fuller account of the destruction in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its aftermath.

15 Riedlmayer, András, “Erasing the Past: The Destruction of Libraries and Archives in Bosnia-Herzegovina”, Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1995CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Carol J. Williams, “Serbs Stay Their Ground on Muslim Lands”, Los Angeles Times, 28 March 1993, available at: www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-03-28-mn-16253-story.html.

17 Mike Sula, “On Top of the World”, Chicago Reader, 4 March 1999, available at: www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/on-top-of-the-world/Content?oid=898556.

18 The ICTY was based in The Hague, the Netherlands. Its remit ended in 2017; the outstanding work of the ICTY is being carried out by the UN-established International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. See http://www.icty.org for more information on the work of the ICTY.

19 Brammertz, Serge, Hughes, Kevin C., Kipp, Alison and Tomljanovich, William B., “Attacks against Cultural Heritage as a Weapon of War: Prosecutions at the ICTY”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 14, No. 5, 2016CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 See Final Report of the Commission of Experts, UN Doc. S/1994/674, 1994, para. 136.

21 Tupajić was testifying at the ICTY. See ICTY, Krajišnik, Case No. IT-00-39-T, 29 June 2005, p. 15431, available at: www.icty.org/x/cases/krajisnik/trans/en/050629IT.htm.

22 Final Report of the Commission of Experts, Annex IV: The Policy of Ethnic Cleansing, UN Doc. S/1994/674/Add.2 (Vol. I), 28 December 1994, Introduction; CIA, Sanitized Bosnia, Serb Ethnic Cleansing, 5 January 1995, available at: www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/document/0001074874. See also “Ethnic Cleansing and Atrocities in Bosnia”, statement by CIA Deputy Director for Intelligence John Gannon, Joint SSCI SFRC Open Hearing, 9 August 1995, available at: www.cia.gov/news-information/speeches-testimony/1995/ddi_testimony_8995.html.

23 Colin Kaiser, Report on Destruction of Cultural Property 09-Jul-02, Krajišnik Case, Case No. IT-00-39, 2002, p. 4.

24 Marija Arnautovic, “Bosnia: The Village Where Hate Never Triumphed”, Institute for War and Peace Reporting, TRI Issue 642, 10 April 2010, available at: iwpr.net/global-voices/bosnia-village-where-hate-never-triumphed.

25 “Renaming Fashion”, Transitions Online, 12 April 1993, available at: www.tol.org/client/article/15051-renaming-fashion.html. See also “Serbs Would Change Name of Sarajevo”, AP News, 10 November 1992, available at: https://tinyurl.com/yyerzuwv; Dusko Doder, “Warring Bosnia Factions Practice Linguistic Cleansing of Geographic Names”, Baltimore Sun, 4 May 1993, available at: articles.baltimoresun.com/1993-05-04/news/1993124122_1_linguistic-cleansing-serbs-yugoslavia.

26 S. Brammertz et al., above note 19.

27 The crimes committed against the Muslim population of Foča were the subject of a number of cases at the ICTY. See ICTY, “Facts about Foča”, available at: www.icty.org/x/file/Outreach/view_from_hague/jit_foca_en.pdf.

28 See H. Walasek, above note 1, p. 34.

29 ICTY, Prosecutor v. Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovač, Zoran Vuković (Foča), Case Nos IT-96-23-T, IT-96-23/1-T, Judgment, 22 February 2001, No. 47.

30 See ICTY, Prosecutor v. Milorad Krnojelac (Foča), Case No. IT-97-25-T, testimony of Racine Manas, 18 January 2001, pp. 1854–1867.

31 Richard Wright, Exhumations at Brčko, report to ICTY, Ref. No. 02926651, 23 August 1998.

32 On the question of the right to cultural heritage as a human right, there is an increasing body of literature on the subject, particularly growing out of the reports and declarations of Karime Bennoune, the UN Special Rapporteur on Cultural Rights; see: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/CulturalRights/Pages/SRCulturalRightsIndex.aspx. See also Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “The Destruction of Cultural Heritage Is a Violation of Human Rights – UN Special Rapporteur”, press release, 4 March 2016, available at www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?Newsid=17151&Langid=E; UNESCO, “UNESCO and ICRC Partner on the Protection of Culture Heritage in the Event of Armed Conflict”, press release, 29 February 2016, available at: www.unesco.org/new/en/member-states/single-view/news/unesco_and_icrc_partner_on_the_protection_of_culture_heritag-1/; ICRC, “Protection of Cultural Property – Questions & Answers”, 30 October 2017, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/protection-cultural-property-questions-and-answers.

33 See, for instance, Specific Action Plan for Bosnia-Herzegovina, Preliminary Phase: Final Report, Technical Cooperation and Consultancy Programme related to the Integrated Conservation of the Cultural Heritage, Council of Europe, Cultural Heritage Division, Strasbourg, March 1999, p. 5; “Rencontre avec Gilles Péqueux, ingénieur responsable de la reconstruction du pont de Mostar”, Courrier des Balkans, 1 March 2003, available at: https://tinyurl.com/y4pw47sl; Andrea Rossini, “Ricostruire il ponte di Mostar seguendone lo ‘stato dello spirito’”, Osservatorio Balcani e Caucaso, 11 April 2003, available at: https://tinyurl.com/y6rw6ezz.

34 The full text of the DPA is available at: peacemaker.un.org/bosniadaytonagreement95.

35 See, for instance, Emily Makas, “Representing Competing Identities: Building and Rebuilding in Postwar Mostar”, PhD thesis, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 2007, pp. 324–329, available at: uncc.academia.edu/EmilyMakas; World Bank, Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Credit in the Amount of SDR 3.0 Million (US$4.0 Million Equivalent) to Bosnia and Herzegovina for a Pilot Cultural Heritage Project, Report No. 19115-BiH, Infrastructure Sector Unit, Europe and Central Asia Regional Office, 14 July 1999; World Bank, Implementation Completion Report on a Credit in the Amount of US$4.0 Million Equivalent to Bosnia and Herzegovina for a Pilot Cultural Heritage Project, Report No. 32713, Infrastructure Sector Unit, Europe and Central Asia Regional Office, 22 June 2005.

36 For instance, most of northwest, northeast and east Bosnia-Herzegovina (such as Prijedor, Bosanska Krupa, Bijeljina, Zvornik, Brčko, Foča, Gacko, Trebinje), and Stolac.

37 This was the case with the attempts to reconstruct the Ferhadija Mosque in Banja Luka, the Atik Mosque in Bijeljina, and the Kizlaragina Mosque in Mirkonjić Grad.

38 As, for example, on the site of the Kizlaragina Mosque in Mirkonjić Grad.

39 As in the cases of the Ferhadija Mosque in Banja Luka and the Atik Mosque in Bijeljina.

40 The social ownership obtained from the era of the post-Second World War federal socialist state of Yugoslavia, of which the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina was a part. On the Atik Mosque, see HRC, The Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina v. The Republika Srpska (Bijeljina Mosques), Case No. CH/99/2656, Decision on the Admissibility and Merits, 6 December 2000.

41 The Islamic Community (Islamska Zajednica) is a legal entity representing the formal practice of Islam in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

42 HRC, The Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina v. The Republika Srpska (Banja Luka Mosques), Case No. CH/96/29, Decision on the Admissibility and Merits, 11 June 1999. See also Dakin, Brett, “The Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina v. The Republika Srpska: Human Rights in a Multi-Ethnic Bosnia”, Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 15, Spring 2002Google Scholar.

43 Interview with François Perez, Bijeljina, 28 September 1999, in Watch, Human Rights, Bosnia and Hercegovina, Unfinished Business: The Return of Refugees and Displaced Persons to Bijeljina. Abuses against Minorities after the War, Vol. 12, No. 7(D), May 2000Google Scholar.

44 See Amra Hadžimuhamedović, “The Built Heritage in the Post-War Reconstruction of Stolac”, in H. Walasek, above note 1, Chap. 6. Also see Edin Mulać (ed.), “Written Memory against Apartheid in the Municipality of Stolac”, in The Revival of Stolac, Association for the Renewal of Civil Trust in the Stolac Municipality, Sarajevo, 8 July 2001.

45 Sometimes also referred to as the Careva, Carska, Emperor or Imperial Mosque. Its reconstruction was completed in 2003.

46 See the opening declaration in Edin Mulać (ed.), “Crimes in Stolac Municipality (1992–1996)”, in The Revival of Stolac, Association for the Renewal of Civil Trust in the Stolac Municipality, Sarajevo, 2001, reprint with addenda.

47 “Riot Halts Bosnia Mosque Building”, BBC News, 7 May 2001, available at: news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1317366.stm; Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, “Bosnian Serbs Sentenced over Mosque Incident”, RFERL Newsline, 29 April 2002, available at: www.rferl.org/a/1142665.html; Beth Kampschror, “News from Bosnia: RS Leaders under Pressure”, Central Europe Review, 25 May 2001, available at: www.pecina.cz/files/www.ce-review.org/01/17/bosnianews17.html; OHR, “High Representative Appalled at Trebinje Violence”, press release, Sarajevo, 5 May 2001, available at www.ohr.int/?p=56153.

48 On the events of June 2001 in Stolac, see A. Hadžimuhamedović, above note 44.

49 Such as the academic round table held at Stolac on 5 October 2001, entitled “The Stolac Region in the 16th Century: Religious and Political Situation” (see more below), and “Povijest Hrvatskog Počitelja” (“The History of Croatian Počitelj”), held at Počitelj in 1996.

50 Zvonko Dragić, “Who Are Victims of Apartheid in Stolac?”, Hrvatska Rijec, 3 September 2001.

51 The book referred to was Hasandedić, Hivzija, Muslimanska Baština Istočne Hercegovine (Muslim Heritage in East Herzegovina), El Kalem, Sarajevo, 1990Google Scholar.

52 Hadžimuhamedović, Amra, “Cultural Memory in Stolac – Destruction and Reconstruction”, in Hadžimuhamedović, Amra (ed.), Human Rights and Destruction of Cultural Memory: The Stolac Case, Norwegian Helsinki Committee, Oslo, 2005, p. 278Google Scholar.

53 Senad Mehmedbašić, “Second Letter to Bishop Perić”, Association for the Renewal of Civil Trust in the Stolac Municipality, 22 September 2001, p. 5.

54 Zvonko Dragić, “Croat Scientists Appealed for Protection of Cultural-Historical Heritage: Their Bosniak Colleagues Ignored Gathering!”, Hrvatska Rijec, 29 October 2001; Don Luka Pavlović, “Slučaj Sultanove Džamije u Stocu u Hercegovini”, Biskupije Mostar-Duvno i Trebinje-Mrkan, 30 November 2002, available at: www.md-tm.ba/clanci/mostar-prilog-dijalogu-izmedu-krscanstva-i-islama.

55 See “Arheolozi ne ugrožavaju obnovu hrama”, Glas Srpske, 11 November 2012, available at: www.glassrpske.com/lat/drustvo/vijesti/Arheolozi-ne-ugrozavaju-obnovu-hrama/100493; “Arheolozi istražuju lokalitet fočanske Careve džamije”, Tuzla Live, 20 April 2013, available at: tuzlalive.ba/arheolozi-istrazuju-lokalitet-focanske-careve-dzamije-84662/; “U Foči ponovno pokrenuti radovi na Carevoj džamiji”, Oslobođenje, 21 June 2013.

56 Bejtić, Alija, “Povijest i umjetnost Foče na Drini”, Naše starine: Godišnjak Zemaljskog zavoda za zaštitu spomenika kulture i prirodnih rijetkosti NR Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo, 1956Google Scholar. The designation of the Careva Mosque on the website of the Commission to Preserve National Monuments quotes and discusses this claim and later historians on the issue, available at old.kons.gov.ba/.

57 See Helen Walasek, “Domains of Restoration: Actors and Agendas in Post-Conflict Bosnia”, in H. Walasek, above note 1, for more on this subject. See also Riedlmayer, András and Naron, Stephen, “From Yizkor Books to Weblogs: Genocide, Grassroots Documentation, and New Technologies”, in Bastian, Jeanette A. and Alexander, Ben (eds), Community Archives: The Shaping of Memory, Facet Publishing, London, 2009Google Scholar.

58 Such sites included the now inactive www.focaci.org.

59 The original text reads: “Bošnjački je narod protjeran iz dobrog dijela Gacka, Trebinja, Bileće, Ljubinja i Nevesinja, međutim mi ne smijemo odustati od naših kulturnih i vjerskih tragova na tim prostorima. Moramo biti uporni u očuvanju naše baštine i identiteta, kako nam se ne bi ponovila islamska Španija.” See “Ramazanska akcija prikupljanja novca za obnovu džamije u Pridvorcima kod Trebinja”, 14 August 2010, available at: https://bosnjaci.net/prilog.php?pid=38585.

60 E. Tanović, above note 3. In the original: “Isto kao što nam je dužnost da ne zaboravimo Srebrenicu, holokaust nad Jeverejima, naša je obaveza da ne zaboravimo i naše porušene džamije.”

61 Safet HadžiMuhamedović, “Waiting for Elijah: Time and Encounter in a Bosnian Landscape”, unpublished PhD thesis, Goldsmiths, University of London, 2015. p. 90. On file with author.

62 Richard Carlton, “Restoring and Preserving Cultural Property in Post-Conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina”, presentation at Chartered Institute for Archaeologists Conference, Newcastle, 20 April 2017.

63 “Izvještaj o akciji obnove Avdića džamije”, Bileća Online, 3 December 2008.

64 In Bosnia-Herzegovina a mevlud is a Muslim celebration featuring Islamic recitations, songs and poems honouring the birth of the Prophet Muhammad.

65 “U Planoj kod Bileće obilježena 400-ta godišnjica izgradnje džamije”, Medžlis Islamske Zajednice Mostar, 3 May 2017, available at: medzlismostar.ba/u-planoj-kod-bilece-obiljezena-400-ta-godisnjica-izgradnje-dzamije/.