Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-dfsvx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T12:15:59.092Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The question of definition: Armed banditry in Nigeria's North-West in the context of international humanitarian law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 July 2022

Tosin Osasona
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In terms of its disruptive impact and intensity of violence, banditry is the gravest security threat that Nigeria currently faces, and it is driving her worst national humanitarian crisis in decades. There are contests about the origin, nature and the drivers of banditry and how well bandits by their modus operandi fit into the various definitional frameworks of an organized criminal group. The article examines what is known about bandits and banditry in light of existing definitional and conceptual paradigms of organized crime and criminal groups, and interrogates the applicability of international humanitarian law to this security crisis that characterizes the current face of conflict in the West African Sahel.

Keywords

banditsNorth-West Nigeriainternational humanitarian laworganized criminal groups
Type
Research Article
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 105 , Issue 923: Organized Crime , August 2023 , pp. 735 - 749
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The advice, opinions and statements contained in this article are those of the author/s and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICRC. The ICRC does not necessarily represent or endorse the accuracy or reliability of any advice, opinion, statement or other information provided in this article.

References

1 Barnett, James, Rufa'i, Murtala Ahmed and Abdulaziz, Abdulaziz, “Northwestern Nigeria: A Jihadization of Banditry, or a ‘Banditization’ of Jihad?”, CTC Sentinel, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2022, p. 46Google Scholar, available at: https://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/CTC-SENTINEL-012022.pdf (all internet references were accessed in June 2022).

2 Paul Carsten and Felix Onuah, “Northeast Nigeria Insurgency Has Killed Almost 350,000 – UN”, Reuters, 24 June 2021, available at: https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/northeast-nigeria-insurgency-has-killed-almost-350000-un-2021-06-24/.

3 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), “Nigerian Refugees in Chad, Cameroon and Niger”, 28 February 2022, available at: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/nigeriasituation#_ga=2.155809531.1973709748.1571844796-1590759838.1571844796.

4 Saskia Brechenmacher, “Stabilizing Northeast Nigeria After Boko Haram”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 3 May 2019, available at: https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/05/03/stabilizing-northeast-nigeria-after-boko-haram-pub-79042.

5 Daily Trust, “Bandits Kill More Nigerians Than Boko Haram, Robbers, Kidnappers, Cultists, Others”, 22 September 2019, available at: https://dailytrust.com/bandits-kill-more-nigerians-than-boko-haram-robbers-kidnappers-cultists-others.

6 Murtala Ahmed Rufa'i, “Cattle Rustling and Armed Banditry along Nigeria–Niger Borderlands”, IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol. 4, No. 4, 2018, p. 67.

7 Tosin Osasona, “New Lords of Nigeria's North West. Bandits: Terrorists or Criminal Gangs?”, The Republic, 5 July 2021, available at: https://republic.com.ng/june-july-2021/new-lords-nigeria-northwest/.

8 Federal Republic of Nigeria, Terrorism (Prevention) Proscription Order Notice, 2021: The activities of Yan Bindiga Group, Yan Ta'adda Group and other similar groups in Nigeria are declared to be terrorism and illegal in any part of Nigeria, especially in the North-West and North-Central Regions of Nigeria and are proscribed pursuant to sections 1 and 2 of the Terrorism (Prevention) Act, 2011, Official Gazette, 29 November 2021, Vol. 108, No. 212, available at: https://thenigerialawyer.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Gazette-declaring-bandits-TheNigerialawyer.pdf.

9 Federal Republic of Nigeria, Terrorism (Prevention and Prohibition) Act, 2022, Official Gazette, 16 May 2022, Vol. 91, No. 109, available at: https://www.nfiu.gov.ng/Home/DownloadFile?filePath=C%3A%5CNFIU%5Cwwwroot%5Cdocuments%5CTPp_DFV8G6.

10 Mohammed J. Kuna and Jibrin Ibrahim, Rural Banditry and Conflicts in Northern Nigeria, Centre for Democracy and Development, Centre for Democracy and Development, Abuja, 2016, p. 15, available at: https://cddwestafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/ruralbanditryinnorthernnigeria1.pdf.

11 Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Terrorism Index 2016, available at: https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Global-Terrorism-Index-2016.2.pdf; SBM Intelligence, Terror in the Food Basket: A Look Into the Violence in North-Central Nigeria, October 2015, available at: https://sbmintel.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/201510_Terror-in-Nigerias-Food-Basket.pdf.

12 ACAPS, “Nigeria: Banditry Violence and Displacement in the Northwest”, Short Note, 24 July 2020, available at: https://www.acaps.org/sites/acaps/files/products/files/20200723_acaps_short_note_northwest_banditry_crisis_nwbc_nigeria.pdf.

13 European Union Agency for Asylum, “Nigeria: Non-State Actors, Common Analysis”, February 2019, available at: https://euaa.europa.eu/country-guidance-nigeria/12-non-state-actors.

14 International Crisis Group, “Violence in Nigeria's North West: Rolling Back the Mayhem”, Africa Report No. 288, 18 May 2020, p. 6, available at: https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/288-violence-in-nigerias-north-west_0.pdf.

15 Kidnapping and Cattle Rustling (Special Provisions) Law of Niger State, 2021; Olaide Oyelude, “Katsina Gov Approves Death Sentence for Kidnapping, Cattle Rustling”, Punch, 24 May 2019, available at: https://punchng.com/katsina-gov-approves-death-sentence-for-kidnapping-cattle-rustling/; Emeka Mamah, “Kaduna Outlaws Kidnapping”, The Vanguard, 15 October 2009, available at: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2009/10/kaduna-outlaws-kidnapping/.

16 Murtala Rufa'i, “I Am a Bandit: A Decade of Research in Zamfara State Bandit's Den”, Public Lecture at the Department of History, Usman Danfodiyo University (UDUS), Sokoto, Nigeria, delivered on 9 September 2021.

17 Samson Folarin, “No School is Safe Until Govt Negotiates with Bandits, Says Gumi”, Punch, 21 June 2021, available at: https://punchng.com/no-school-is-safe-until-govt-negotiates-with-bandits-says-gumi/.

18 Attahiru Ahmed, “There Are More Than 30,000 Bandits with Sophisticated Weapons in Zamfara, Emir Tells Service Chiefs”, The Nigerian Tribune, 9 March 2021, available at: https://tribuneonlineng.com/there-are-more-than-30000-bandits-with-sophisticated-weapons-in-zamfara-emir-tells-service-chiefs/.

19 Laleye Dipo, “Bandits Have Informants in Kidnapped District Head's Community, Says Niger Gov”, This Day, 4 January 2021, available at: https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2021/01/04/bandits-have-informants-in-kidnapped-district-heads-community-says-niger-gov/.

20 Yusuf Anka, “Leaders of Bandit Groups in Northwest Agree to Unite, Escalate Attacks on Communities”, HumAngle, 20 May 2020, available at: https://humanglemedia.com/leaders-of-bandit-groups-in-northwest-agree-to-unite-escalate-attacks-on-communities/.

21 Ibrahim HassanWuyo, “Bandits Fight Each Other in Kaduna Forest, Kingpin Nasiru Kachalla, Others Killed”, The Vanguard, 28 December 2020, available at: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/12/bandits-fight-each-other-in-kaduna-forest-kingpin-nasiru-kachalla-others-killed/.

22 Saminu, Idris, Yacoob, Che Mohd Aziz and Shukri, Shazwanis Binti, “Identity and ‘Fulanization’ of Banditry in Nigeria: The Fulani as a ‘Criminal Tribe’”, Zamfara Journal of Politics and Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2022, p. 1Google Scholar.

23 Ibrahim Hassan Wuyo, “Banditry: It's Hausa–Fulani War, Zamfara Traces Origin of Hostilities”, The Vanguard, 3 April 2021, available at: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/04/banditry-its-hausa-fulani-war-zamfara-traces-origin-of-hostilities/; J. Barnett, M. A. Rufa'i and A. Abdulaziz, above note 1, p. 47.

24 Kayode Oyero, “Most Bandits are Fulani Who Profess Same Religious Beliefs as Me – Masari”, Punch, 6 September 2021, available at: https://punchng.com/most-bandits-are-fulani-who-profess-same-religious-beliefs-as-me-masari/.

25 Ladan, Suleiman and Iguda, Abdul, “Analysis of Contemporary Insecurity in Katsina State, Nigeria”, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, Vol. 6, No. 7, 2019, p. 98Google Scholar.

26 Nduka Orjinmo, “Katsina: The Motorcycle Bandits Terrorising Northern Nigeria”, BBC News, 5 July 2020, available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53009704.

27 Ebunoluwa Olafusi, “Yari: In Five Years, Bandits Have Killed Over 3000 in Zamfara”, The Cable, 9 April 2019, available at: https://www.thecable.ng/yari-in-five-years-bandits-have-killed-over-3000-in-zamfara.

28 Francis Sardauna and Seriki Adinoyi, “Kidnappers Attack Daura, Abduct District Head, Umar”, This Day, 2 May 2019, available at: https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2019/05/02/kidnappers-attack-daura-abduct-district-head-umar/; Sahara Reporters, “Again, Bandits Attack President Buhari's Home State, Kill Three, Abduct Businessman”, 1 July 2021, available at: https://saharareporters.com/2021/07/01/again-bandits-attack-president-buhari%E2%80%99s-home-state-kill-three-abduct-businessman.

29 Sani Tukur, “District Head of Buhari's Hometown, Daura, Kidnapped”, Premium Times, 1 May 2019, available at: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/328014-district-head-of-buharis-hometown-daura-kidnapped.html.

30 Mohammed Babangida, “Zamfara Emir Kidnapped Along Kaduna–Abuja Road”, Premium Times, 15 September 2021, available at: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/484904-zamfara-emir-kidnapped-along-kaduna-abuja-road.html; Mohammed Lere, “Bandits Abduct Kaduna Emir, 3 Wives, 2 Grandchildren, Staff”, Premium Times, 11 July 2021, available at: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/472898-just-in-bandits-abduct-kaduna-emir-10-others.html.

31 John Campbell, “Kidnapping and Ransom Payments in Nigeria”, Council on Foreign Relations Blog, 18 February 2021, available at: https://www.cfr.org/blog/kidnapping-and-ransom-payments-nigeria.

32 Goodluck Jonathan Foundation, Terrorism and Banditry in Nigeria: The Nexus, 2021, p. 29, available at: https://www.gejfoundation.org/terrorism-and-banditry/.

33 Idrees Ali, “U.S. Special Forces Rescue American Held in Nigeria: Officials”, Reuters, 31 October 2020, available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-nigeria-military-idUSKBN27G0JI.

34 Hauck, Pierre and Peterke, Sven, “Organized Crime and Gang Violence in National and International Law”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 92, No. 878, 2010, pp. 408–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Alan Wright, Organised Crime, Willan Publishing, New York, 2006, pp. 48–9.

36 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Programme Against Transnational Organized Crime, Results of a Pilot Survey of Forty Selected Organized Criminal Groups in Sixteen Countries, September 2002, p. 30, available at: https://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/publications/Pilot_survey.pdf.

37 Finckenauer, James O. and Waring, Elin J., Russian Mafia in America: Immigration, Culture, and Crime, Northeastern University Press, New York, 1998, p. 12Google Scholar.

38 African Union, Comprehensive Assessment of Drug Trafficking and Organised Crime in West and Central Africa, January 2014, p. 3, available at: https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/30220-doc-organized_crime_in_west_and_central_africa_-_july_2014_-_abridged_summary_english.pdf.

39 Tennant, Ian, “Fulfilling the Promise of Palermo? A Political History of the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime”, Journal of Illicit Economies and Development, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2021, p. 54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, G.A. Res. 25, Annex I, UN GAOR, 55th Sess., Supp. No. 49, at 44, UN Doc. A/45/49, Vol. I, 2001 (entered into force 29 September 2003).

41 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Programme Against Transnational Organized Crime, above note 36, p. 8.

42 Centre for Democracy and Development, “Northwest Nigeria's Bandit Problem: Explaining the Conflict Drivers”, 5 April 2022, p. 4, available at: https://cddwestafrica.org/northwest-nigerias-bandit-problem-explaining-the-conflict-drivers/.

43 J. Barnett et al., above note 1, p. 50.

44 Federal Government of Nigeria, National Security Strategy 2019, December 2019, p. 24, available at: https://ctc.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/ONSA-UPDATED.pdf.

45 Ray Kea, “‘I Am Here to Plunder on the General Road:’ Bandits and Banditry in the Pre-Nineteenth Century Gold Coast”, in Donald Crummey (ed.), Banditry, Rebellion, and Social Protest in Africa, James Currey, London, 1986, p. 117.

46 Ekpa, D., Oladele, O. I. and Akinyemi, M., “Poverty Status of Climate Smart Agricultural Farmers in North West Nigeria – Application of Foster Greer and Thorbecke Model”, American Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 5, No. 5, 2017, p. 138Google Scholar.

47 J. B. S. Hardman, “Terrorism”, in Edwin R. A. Seligman and Alvin Saunders Johnson (eds), Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1937, Vol. 14, p. 575; Michael Stohl, “Demystifying Terrorism: The Myths and Realities of Contemporary Political Terrorism”, in M. Stohl (ed.), The Politics of Terrorism, Mark Dekker, New York, 1988, p. 3; Lesley Brown (ed.), The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles, Clarendon Press, Oxford, Vol. 2, N–Z, 1993, p. 32.

48 Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, Columbia University Press, New York, 1988, p. 17.

49 Daily Trust, “Sokoto Villagers Heave Sigh of Relief After Bandits Surrender Arms”, 28 May 2017, available at: https://dailytrust.com/amp/sokoto-villagers-heave-sigh-of-relief-after-bandits-surrender-arms.

50 Onwuzuruigbo, Ifeanyi, “Enclaves of Banditry: Ungoverned Forest Spaces and Cattle Rustling in Northern Nigeria”, African Studies Review, Vol. 64, No. 1, 2021, p. 168CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Agence France Presse (AFP), “Boko Haram Terrorists Now Training Bandits in Kaduna, Other North-West States – Military Sources”, Nigerian Tribune, 24 September 2021, available at: https://tribuneonlineng.com/boko-haram-terrorists-now-training-bandits-in-kaduna-other-north-west-states-military-sources/.

51 James Barnett, “Investigating the ‘Boko Haram’ Presence in Niger State”, Hudson Institute, 30 April 2021, available at: https://www.hudson.org/research/16878-investigating-the-boko-haram-presence-in-niger-state.

52 Makarenko, Tamara, “The Crime–Terror Continuum: Tracing the Interplay between Transnational Organised Crime and Terrorism”, Global Crime, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2004, p. 130CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 Dishman, Chris, “Terrorism, Crime, and Transformation”, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Vol. 24, No. 1, 2001, pp. 43–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 Louise I. Shelley et al., “Methods and Motives: Exploring Links Between Transnational Organized Crime & International Terrorism”, US Department of Justice, 23 June 2005, available at: https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/211207.pdf.

55 J. Barnett, M. A. Rufa'i and A. Abdulaziz, above note 1, p. 50.

56 Ojo Maduekwe, “These Figures Explain Why the North-West is Anti Restructuring”, The Cable, 9 October 2017, available at: https://www.thecable.ng/these-figures-explain-why-the-north-west-is-anti-restructuring.

57 This Day, “Over 3,000 Killed, 500 Villages Affected in Zamfara, Says Yari”, 10 April 2019, available at: https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2019/04/10/over-3000-killed-500-villages-affected-in-zamfara-says-yari/.

58 Mohammed I. Yaba, “700,000 People Displaced by Bandits in Zamfara – Gov't”, Daily Trust, 20 March 2022, available at: https://dailytrust.com/700000-people-displaced-by-bandits-in-zamfara-govt.

59 Francis Sardauna, “Bandits Kill 213, Kidnap 676 Persons in Four Months in Katsina”, This Day, 19 November 2021, available at: https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2021/11/18/bandits-kill-213-kidnap-676-persons-in-four-months-in-katsina/.

60 Mohammed I. Yaba, “Kaduna: Bandits Killed 1,192, Kidnapped 3,348 in 2021”, Daily Trust, 1 February 2022, available at: https://dailytrust.com/kaduna-bandits-killed-1192-kidnapped-3348-in-2021.

61 Tope Alake, “Nigeria's Buhari Warns Rising Banditry a Threat to Food Security”, Bloomberg, 13 May 2021, available at: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-05-13/nigeria-s-buhari-warns-rising-banditry-a-threat-to-food-security; Premium Times, “Insecurity: Buhari Pledges Action Against Bandits”, 13 May 2021, available at: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/461321-insecurity-buhari-pledges-action-against-bandits.html.

62 The Vanguard, “In Nigeria: 20 Attacks on Schools, 1,436 Students Abducted, 16 Dead”, 16 September 2021, available at: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/09/in-nigeria-20-attacks-on-schools-1436-students-abducted-16-dead/.

63 UNICEF, Education: Literacy Among Young Women, 2021, available at: https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/media/1631/file.

64 Ronke Idowu, “Insurgency, Banditry Have Forced Over 12m Children Out of School, Says Presidency”, Channels Television, 27 October 2021, available at: https://www.channelstv.com/2021/10/27/insurgency-banditry-forcing-children-out-of-school-says-presidency/.

65 Oluwole Ojewale and Omolara Balogun, “Banditry's Impacts on Women and Children in Nigeria Needs a Policy Response”, LSE Blog, 10 January 2022, available at: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2022/01/10/banditry-impacts-on-women-children-in-nigeria-needs-policy-response-kidnappings-ssi-education/.

66 Dunamis Ogalah, “Bandits Rape Women, Loot Zamfara Community for Not Paying Levy”, Daily Post, 15 November 2021, available at: https://dailypost.ng/2021/11/15/bandits-rape-women-loot-zamfara-community-for-not-paying-levy/.

67 John Adam, “Mass Gang-Rape of Women, Girls by Bandits in Niger Communities”, The Sun, 24 November 2021, available at: https://www.sunnewsonline.com/mass-gang-rape-of-women-girls-by-bandits-in-niger-communities/.

68 J. Campbell, above note 31.

69 I. Ali, above note 33.

70 Amuda-Kannike Abiodun and Abila, Sylvanus Elijah, “A Review of The Boko Haram Insurgency and Armed Conflicts in Nigeria Under International Humanitarian Law”, Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization, Vol. 73, 2018; Oshoma Aduku, “Legal Classification of Conflict in Nigeria (Boko Haram Case Study)”, SSRN, 28 July 2021, available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3861496.

71 Straus, Scott, “Wars Do End! Changing Patterns of Political Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa”, African Affairs, Vol. 111, No. 443, 2012CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 Dele Olowu and Paulos Chanie, “Introduction: Renewed Interest in State Weakness and Fragility”, in D. Olowu and P. Chanie (eds), State Fragility and State Building in Africa: Cases from Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations University Series on Regionalism, No. 10, Springer, London, 2016.

73 Williams, Paul D., “Continuity and Change in War and Conflict in Africa”, PRISM, Vol. 6, No. 4, 2017, p. 34Google Scholar.

74 Graduate Institute of Geneva, Human Rights Obligations of Armed Non-State Actors: An Exploration of the Practice of the UN Human Rights Council, Geneva, Academy In-Brief No. 7, 2016, p. 4, available at: https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/InBrief7_web.pdf.

75 Burbach, David T. and Fettweis, Christopher J., “The Coming Stability? The Decline of Warfare in Africa and Implications for International Security”, Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 35, No. 3, 2014, p. 423CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

76 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), The Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1-T, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction (Appeals Chamber), 2 October 1995, para. 70.

77 ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Haradinaj et al., Case No. IT-04-84-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber I), 3 April 2008, para. 49 c.

78 Protocol Additional (II) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 609, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978), Art. 1(2).

79 ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber), 7 May 1997, 36 ILM 908 and 920.

80 Jean Pictet (ed.), Commentary on the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Vol. I: Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field: Commentary, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva, 1952.

81 ICRC, “How is the Term ‘Armed Conflict’ Defined in International Humanitarian Law?”, Opinion Paper, March 2008, available at: https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/opinion-paper-armed-conflict.pdf (emphasis added).

82 Eric David, “Internal (Non-International) Armed Conflict”, in Andrew Clapham and Paola Gaeta (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014 (emphasis added).

83 Dinstein, Yoram, Non-International Armed Conflicts in International Law, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021, p. 43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 Cullen, Anthony, The Concept of Non-International Armed Conflict in International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010, p. 37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

85 ICRC, “Armed Conflicts Linked to the Disintegration of State Structures”, preparatory document drafted by the International Committee of the Red Cross for the first periodical meeting on International Humanitarian Law, Geneva, 19–23 January 1998, available at: https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/misc/57jplq.htm.

86 Schmitt, Michael N., “The Status of Opposition Fighter in a Non-International Armed Conflict”, International Law Studies, Vol. 88, 2012, p. 123Google Scholar.

87 ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Boškoski and Tarčulovski, Case No. IT-04-82, Judgment (Trial Chamber II), 10 July 2008, para. 177, footnotes with references to ICTY case law deleted; ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Haradinaj et al., Case No. IT-04-84-T, Judgment (Trial Chamber I), 3 April 2008, paras 49 and 90–9; ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Limaj et al., Case No. IT-03-66, Judgment (Trial Chamber II), 30 November 2005, paras 90 and 135–70; see International Criminal Court, The Prosecutor v. Lubanga, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/06, Judgment (Trial Chamber I), 14 March 2012, para. 538; International Criminal Court, The Prosecutor v. Katanga, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/07, Judgment (Trial Chamber II), 7 March 2014, para. 1187; and International Criminal Court, The Prosecutor v. Bemba, Judgment (Trial Chamber III), 21 March 2016, paras 137–41.