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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 January 2022
The establishment of Jami‘at al-Zahra, the first official female seminary in post-revolutionary Iran, opened new possibilities for women to enter the male-dominated clerical hierarchy. The rapid growth of female seminaries increased the presence of seminary-educated women in the official religious sphere. However, as opposed to the male seminaries whose dominant role is to train mojtaheds who can issue a competent legal opinion, the primary role of female seminaries is to train educators and propagandists. Drawing on interviews, documents issued by seminaries and secondary sources, this paper concludes that in spite of the rapid growth of female seminaries, very few women reach the rank of a mojtahed, and thus, in no way weaken the male-centric seminary system in contemporary Iran.
1 ‘Abdol ‘Azim Women's Seminary commenced its educational activities in 1372 (1993–94) and has been under the authority of the Management Center for Women's Seminaries since 1379 (2000–01). It is the first women's seminary to conduct a Level 3 course, which is equivalent to a master's course, in Tehran. In addition to full-time students, 250–300 part-time students attend this seminary in the afternoon. It receives financial support mostly from the endowments of the ‘Abdol ‘Azim shrine, but it also receives some funding from the Management Center for Women's Seminaries. For details of this seminary, see www.hajj.ir (13/05/1388) (accessed 5 June 2011). The author interviewed a principal, instructors and students on 15 May 2011, at the seminary.
2 Previous studies on women's seminaries in Iran include Künkler, Mirjam and Fazaeli, Roja, “The Life of Two Mujtahidas: Female Religious Authority in 20th Century Iran,” in Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority, ed. Bano, M. and Kalmbach, H. (Leiden, 2012)Google Scholar; Kian, Azadeh, “Women and Social Protest in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” in Gender in Contemporary Iran: Pushing the Boundaries, ed. Bahramitash, R. and Hooglund, E. (London, 2011)Google Scholar; Kamalkhani, Zahra, Women's Islam: Religious Practice among Women in Today's Iran (London, 1998)Google Scholar, Chapter 4; Zahab, Marian Abou, “Between Pakistan and Qom: Shi'i Women's Madrasas and New Transnational Networks,” in The Madrasa in Asia: Political Activism and Transnational Linkages, ed. Noor, F.A., Sikand, Y. and van Bruinessen, M. (Amsterdam, 2008)Google Scholar; Sakurai, Keiko, “Women's Empowerment and Iranian-style Seminaries in Iran and Pakistan,” in The Moral Economy of Madrasa: Islam and Education Today, ed. Sakurai, Keiko and Adelkhah, Fariba (London, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
3 Maktab usually refers to a Quranic school where primary literacy, numeracy and Islamic studies are offered. According to Mottahedeh, maktab had died by the end of World War II in Iran. Mottahedeh, Roy, The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran (Oxford, 1985, 2000), 236Google Scholar. The word “maktab” has been also used to refer to private women's religious schools, such as Maktab-e Towhid and Maktab-e Narjes. Details please see Sakurai, “Women's Empowerment and Iranian-style Seminaries in Iran and Pakistan,” 34.
4 Farsnews (29/01/1389), http://www.farsnews.com/printable.php?nn=8901290625 (accessed 10 July 2011)
5 The Management Centre for Women's Seminaries, News code.1141 (21/12/1389), http://whc.ir/?sid=14770683 (accessed 24 July 2011).
6 www.tebyan.net (16/06/1389), http://www.tebyan.net/Seminaryh/Seminaryh_Magzine/News_Seminaryh/2010/9/7/136367.html (accessed 1 July 2011).
7 According to the principal of ‘Abdol ‘Azim Women's Seminary, there were 700 applicants for 25–30 places in 2010.
8 The shrine of the eighth Shi‘ite Imam, which is a popular destination for Shi‘ite pilgrims, is located in the Khorasan province.
9 www.hozehkhorasan.com, News code 103 (08/03/90), http://www.hozehkhorasan.com/Default.aspx?entryID=4242 (accessed 1 June 2011)
10 Payam-e Howzeh, no. 14, 1376, http://www.hawzah.net/Per/Magazine/PH/014/ph01404.asp (accessed 21 February 2010).
11 Largani, Mayram Hosseini and Salehi, Seyed Javad, Zanan va Amuzesh-e ‘Ali dar Jomuhuri-ye Eslami-ye Iran Sal 1357–1387 (Tehran, 2010), 88Google Scholar.
12 In principle, government universities charge no fees; however, students admitted to the evening courses are obliged to pay fees.
13 A seminary is a private institution, mostly run using religious donations and endowments. Generally, tuition is free for full-time students, but not for part-time students.
14 For details on the increase in the number of women's seminaries in the 1990s and the 2000s, please see Sakurai, “Women's Empowerment and Iranian-style Seminaries in Iran and Pakistan,” 35.
15 The council was established in 1995 under the leadership of Ayatollah Khamene'i. The homepage of the council, see http://www.shorayeaali.com/pages/page-view.aspx?id=18 (accessed 30 September 2012).
16 There are 55 examination centers nationwide, except in the Khorasan province, which is not covered by the Management Center. Markaz-e Modiriyat-e Howzeh-ha-ye ‘Elmiyyeh-ye Khaharan, Rahnamayi-ye Paziresh-e Nezam-e Amuzeshi-ye Tamamvaqt, Madares-e ‘Elmiyyeh-ye Khahran Sal-e Tahsili 1383–84 (Qom, 2004).
17 For details, see Sakurai, “Women's Empowerment and Iranian-style Seminaries in Iran and Pakistan,” 37–38.
18 Document of permission to perform specified religious acts. Fischer, Michael M.J., Iran from Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge, 2003), 290Google Scholar.
19 For an explanation of how tertiary education contributes to raise the status of women, see Shavarini, Mitra K., “Wearing the Veil to College: the Paradox of Higher Education in the Lives of Iranian Women,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 38 (2006): 199, 208CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hegland, Mary Elaine, “Educating Young Women: Culture, Conflict, and New Identities in an Iranian Village,” Iranian Studies, 42, no. 1 (2009): 71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
20 According to Khabar Online (30/12/1388), the average nuptial gift for a university graduate is 400–500 gold coins or more. However, the amounts for women who have completed lower secondary or elementary schooling are 208 and 52 respectively. These figures show that possessing a tertiary degree is a considerable advantage in the marriage market. http://www.khabaronline.ir/news-38556.aspx (accessed 30 July 2011).
21 The author's interview with the principal of ‘Abdol ‘Azim Women's Seminary.
22 Author's personal communication with him at Tehran on 14 June 2011.
23 When the victory of incumbent president Ahmedinejad was announced, the opposition candidates, especially Mir Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi, refused to accept the result, claiming that the election had been rigged. People who supported them, including many university students, protested against the result. This controversial election triggered a huge confrontation between the government and what became known as the “Green Movement.” University campuses became the main sites of confrontation between the supporters of Ahmedinejad and those of Mousavi and Karroubi. Regarding the election, see Morady, Farhang, “Who Rules Iran? The June 2009 Election and Political Turmoil,” Capital and Class, 35, no. 1 (2011): 52–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
24 Those who prefer to keep a distance from politics are not necessarily happy with contemporary seminary education, because of the seminaries’ closeness to the regime.
25 She is an instructor at ‘Abdol ‘Azim Women's Seminary.
26 Author's interview at ‘Abdol ‘Azim Women's Seminary.
27 Payam-e Howzeh, 1382, no. 38, http://www.hawzah.net/Hawzah/Magazines/MagArt.aspx?id=44852 (accessed 30 August 2008).
28 Author's interview at ‘Abdol ‘Azim Women's Seminary.
29 Author's interview at ‘Abdol ‘Azim Women's Seminary.
30 Most foreign students who wish to study in seminaries obtain admission in Al-Mustafa International University in Qom. According to the university's brochure, “approximately 16,000 have graduated” and “10,000 students are studying in Iran while 8,000 are acquiring their education in affiliated institutions in other countries.” An Introduction to Al-Mustafa International University (Qom, 2009), 3. On the other hand, the number of non-Iranian students studying at government universities in Iran is about 3,500. Fars News, 14/04/1389, http://www.farsnews.com/printable.php?nn=8904140677 (accessed 23 October 2011).
31 Dars-e kharej is “studies beyond the strict sequence of textbooks.” Fischer, Iran from Religious Dispute to Revolution, 63.
32 R. Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet, 202. Examples of the contents and discourse of dars-e kharej, please see Fischer, Iran from Religious Dispute to Revolution, 63–76.
33 Momen, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism (New Haven, 1985), 202–3Google Scholar.
34 Somiyeh Sadat Shafi‘i, “Hozur-e Frayand-e Zanan dar Howzeh-ha-ye ‘Elmiyyeh,” Markaz-e Tahqiqat-e Esteratezhik, Mo‘avenat-e Pazhuhesh-ha-ye Farhangi va Ejtema‘i, Pazhuhesh, 3 (1385): 77.
35 This tendency can be also observed at universities, where female students outnumber their male counterparts at the undergraduate level, but not at the master's and doctoral level.
36 Jami'i az Asatid va Fazla-ye Howzeh-ye ‘Elmiyyeh-ye Qom, Modiriyat-e Tahavvol dar Howzeh-ha-ye ‘Elmiyyeh (Tehran, 2010), 272.
37 Shafi‘i, “Hozur-e Frayand-e Zanan dar Howzeh-ha-ye ‘Elmiyyeh,” 85.
38 Qom, Modiriyat-e Tahavvol dar Howzeh-ha-ye ‘Elmiyyeh, 85–87.
39 Although the year of her birth is unknown, she started her religious education in Abadan in 1345 (1966–67) and moved to Qom in 1350 (1971–72). Therefore, she currently seems to be in her early 50s. Hawzah Magazines (10/11/1384), http://www.hawzah.net/Hawzah/Magazines/MagArt.aspx?MagazineNumberID=5691&id=56064 (accessed 5 July 2011).
40 Tebyan (13/12/1385), http://www.tebyan.net/index.aspx?pid=33513 (accessed 1 June 2011)
41 Home page of Jame‘at al-Zahra, http://www.jz.ac.ir/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=177%3A1388-06-30-04-35-11&catid=83%3A1388-06-27-05-21-49&Itemid=143&limitstart=10 (accessed 3 July 2011).
42 Rasa News (07/11/1388), http://www.rasanews.ir/NSite/FullStory/PrintVersion/?Id=73794 (accessed 28 October 2011).
43 Ayandeh-ye Roushan (05/07/1389), http://www.bfnews.ir/vdcepn8x.jh8fei9bbj.html (accessed 20 July 2011).
44 Author's interview of the principal of ‘Abdol ‘Azim Women's Seminary.
45 Shenakht-e Rahbari (06/11/1389), http://www.leader-khamenei.com/khaterat/khamenei-stories/1540-dars-feghh.html (accessed 10 July 2011).
46 Ijtihad Information Network (18/11/1389), http://ijtihad.ir/modules.php?op=modload&name=Web_Links&file=index&req=viewdetails&cides=121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131&cid=121&lid=5576&type=5 (accessed 5 July 2011).
47 Maktab-e Narjes (or Madreseh-ye ‘Elmiyyeh-e Narjes) is the most prestigious women's seminary in the Khorasan province and was established in 1345 (1966–67). For more information, see its homepage: http://www.m-narjes.org/ (accessed 7 August 2011).
48 Rasan News Agency (08/07/1388), http://www.rasanews.ir/NSite/Fullstory/?Id=64596 (accessed 27 July 2011).
49 Iranian Quran News Agency (05/07/1389), http://www.iqna.ir/hadis/news_detail.php?ProdID=663790 (accessed 10 July 2011).
50 The most detailed paper on the life of Amin and Sefati in English is Künkler and Fazaeli, “The Life of Two Mujtahidas.” Some other women are sometimes regarded as mojtahed, for example, Monireh Gorji (1309–), a member of the first Assembly of Experts. She has taught Islamic jurisprudence, Quran commentary, decrees (ahkam) and ethics at Khadijeh Kobra Seminary (howzeh-ye ‘elmiyyeh-ye Khadijeh-ye Kobra) in Tehran and elsewhere. http://www.fatemiyon.ir/1389-08-28-00-10-04/1389-08-30-21-03-36/1333-1389-11-16-15-47-53
(accessed 25 July 2011). Masumeh Golgeeri, who teaches dars-e kharej at Jame‘at al Zahra, does not seem to have been recognized as mojtahed. She is called a “professor of Islamic jurisprudence,” while Sefati is called a “mojtahedeh” (female mojtahed). However, a female graduate of Jame‘at al-Zahra told the author that Golgeeri is widely recognized as a mojtahed by female seminary students. Mehr News (15/07/1385), http://www.mehrnews.com/fa/NewsDetail.aspx?NewsID=390808 (accessed 5 July 2011); Iranian Quran News Agency (29/08/1385), http://www.iqna.ir/fa/news_detail.php?ProdID=82910 (accessed 5 July 2011); Farideh Farhi, “The Assembly of Experts,” in United States Institute of Peace, The Iran Primer, http://iranprimer.usip.org/resource/assembly-experts (accessed 5 July 2011).
51 Her birth year is inconsistent across documents. Here, I consider it to be 1266 (1887–88), according to Batul Zarkandeh. Zarkandeh, Batul, Banu Amin (Tehran, 2010–11), 7Google Scholar..
52 Zarkandeh, Banu Amin, 7, 44–46.
53 During Amin's lifetime, her books were published under a man's name or simply as “a lady of Isfahan” or as “a woman from Isfahan.” Künkler and Fazaeli, “The Life of Two Mujtahidas,” 138–139.
54 Künkler and Fazaeli, “The Life of Two Mujtahidas,” 145.
55 Künkler and Fazaeli, “The Life of Two Mujtahidas,” 146.
56 “mojtahedeh” is a feminine ending of “mojtahed.”
57 Fischer, Iran from Religious Dispute to Revolution, 163; Momen, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, 343.
58 Makarem Shirazi's resaleh: http://www.zaerin.ir/refrence/makarem.htm (accessed 29 June 2011), M. Fischer, Iran from Religious Dispute to Revolution, 279.
59 The Position of Women from the Viewpoint of Imam Khomeini (Tehran 2001), 44, http://www.iranchamber.com/history/rkhomeini/books/women_position_khomeini.pdf .
60 Khomenini's resale, http://www.seminaryh.net/Per/K/Resale/resale01.htm.
61 Makarem Shirazi's resaleh.
62 Lankarani's resale, http://www.lankarani.org/far/bok/view.php?ntx=027001.
63 Amoli, Javadi, Zan dar Ayineh-ye Jalal va Jamal (Tehran, 2002–03), 352, 403Google Scholar.
64 Mutahheri, Allamah Murtaza, Woman and Her Rights (Bombay, 1992), 111–12Google Scholar.
65 Sane'i's homepage, http://saanei4.info/?view=01,02,09,615,0 (accessed 20 October 2011).
66 Sane'i's homepage, http://saanei4.info/?view=01,02,48,51,0 (accessed 29 October 2011).
67 Shia news (12/08/1385), http://www.seminaryh.net/FA/MagArt.html?MagazineID=0&MagazineNumberID=5668&MagazineArticleID=56283.
68 A Shi‘i theologian. Momen, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, 317.
69 A Shi‘i scholar and the student of Sheikh Mofid. Momen, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, 321.
70 Shia news (12/08/1385).
71 Author's interview with Sefati at her office on 6 June 2011.
72 Momen, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, 245.
73 For more information on the Zeinab Society, see its home page: http://zeinab.ir/. Current leader of the society is Dr. Maryam Behruzi. Hoodfar, Homa and Sadr, Shadi, “Islamic Politics and Women's Quest for Gender Equality in Iran,” Third World Quarterly, 31, no. 6 (2010): 896–97CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
74 Notably, this was the first time the Guardian Council allowed women and non-clerics to register as candidates. However, the Guardian Council disqualified all such candidates on the grounds of inadequate Islamic credentials. This event implies that none of the six women are officially recognized as mojtahed.
75 Fars News (29/11/1989), http://www.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=8911290295 (accessed 14 August 2011)
76 The Center for Women and Family Affairs affiliated to the Presidential Office, News no. 312(09/03/1385), http://www.women.gov.ir/pages/?cid=312 (accessed 3 August 2011).
77 Author's interview with Sefati at her office on 6 June 2011.
78 Shia-online news (07/06/1389), http://www.shia-online.ir/article.asp?id=13738 (accessed 12 April 2011).
79 Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet, 232. Even though seminary students can obtain a degree by passing the final examination, ejazeh has not been replaced by these degrees. A cleric explains that “a degree is meant to certify the completion of the requirements for the specific course and it is useful for obtaining a job, but a degree does not guarantee the level of one's knowledge; therefore, if one wants to work as a mojtahed, having adequate ejazehs from eminent clerics is indispensable” (Author's interview with a male cleric at Qom in June 2011).
