¹ This article is based on some of the findings in my D.Phil, thesis, “The Source, Distribution, History and Use of Lapis Lazuli in Western Asia from the earliest times to the end of the Seleucid era”, presented at Oxford in 1966Google Scholar, and my thanks are due to many people and organizations, acknowledged in its Preface, for having made it possible. My greatest debt of gratitude is to my supervisor, Professor M. E. L. Mallowan, C.B.E., Fellow of All Souls College, who has given me unfailing assistance and encouragement. I am most grateful to Mrs. Joan Crowfoot Payne of the Department of Antiquities of the Ashmolean Museum for contributing the section on lapis lazuli in Egypt, which follows this article, and to Mr. Roger Moorey, Assistant Keeper in the same Department, for reading the typescript and making many helpful and constructive suggestions. Mrs. P. Clark prepared the drawings: the maps are based on originals prepared by Miss Charmian Lacey, A.R.I.B.A., a member of the Oxford University Expedition to Afghanistan in 1964. This expedition was only made possible by the courteous support of members of the Afghan Government, particularly by the Ministry of Mines and Industries.

² Apart from Egypt, which is outside the scope of this paper. For the early importation of lapis lazuli into Egypt see the following article by Mrs. Joan Crowfoot Payne. See also Lucas, A., Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, revised by Harris, J. R. (1962) pp. 340–344.Google Scholar

³ Rutley, F., Elements of Mineralogy (revised by Read, H. H. 1948) pp. 380–381.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ This name came from the Tokhars who defeated the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the second century B.C.

¹¹ The Encyclopaedia of Islam I p. 553.Google Scholar

¹² Eng. Ghaus, G., “Afghan Lapis Lazuli”, Afghan Ministry of Mines and Industries Magazine 3 (1958) pp. 1–6.Google Scholar

¹³ For the geological material I am indebted to Dr. Peter Woodrow, who accompanied the Oxford University Expedition to Afghanistan as Expedition geologist. He examined the mine area, collected specimens and subsequently worked on the material. His reports are quoted at length in the Report of the Expedition and in my thesis.

¹⁴ Lazurite is an essential component of the rock lapis lazuli and is the one responsible for its blue colour. The formula can be written Na₄(NaS₃, Al)Al₂Si₃O₁₂, although there is considerable variation in the amounts of sodium and sulphur present.

¹⁵ Wood, Lt. John, Journey to the Source of the River Oxus (1841) p. 265.Google Scholar

¹⁶ F. Rutley, op. cit. p. 381.

¹⁷ Hamd-Allah Mustawfi of Qazvin, The Geographical Part of the Nuzhat al-Qulub, translated by le Strange, G. (1919) p. 197.Google Scholar

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²¹ Kent, R. G., Old Persian, Grammar, Texts, Lexicon (1950) p. 143, lines 37–38.Google Scholar

²² Webster, R., Gems, their sources, descriptions and identification (1962) p. 201.Google Scholar

²³ Buchanan, B., Catalogue of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in the Ashmolean Museum I, Cylinder Seals (hereafter Ashmolean) (1966) p. 28, no. 133.Google Scholar

²⁴ See thesis, pp. 17–18.

²⁵ Tobler, A. J., Excavations at Tepe Gawra, II, Levels IX–XX (hereafter Gawra II) (1950) p. 192.Google Scholar

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²⁸ Gawra II p. 189, pls. LXXXVIII c and CLXIX. 167.

²⁹ Ibid., p. 189.

³⁰ Ibid., pl. CLXIV, 100–102.

³¹ Letter from B. Buchanan to P. R. S. Moorey of 22nd February, 1967.

³² Gawra II, pl. CLXVIII, 156 and pl. CLXVIII, 163.

³³ Porada, E., “Relative Chronology of Mesopotamia: I”, in Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, edited by Ehrich, R. W. (hereafter Porada, Relative Chronology) (1965) p. 147.Google Scholar

³⁴ Gawra II, pl. LIX a.

³⁵ Ibid. p. 88.

³⁶ Ibid. pl. CVI, 46.

³⁷ Ibid. pl. CVI, 37.

³⁸ Ibid. pl. LVIII b 5 and pl. CVI, 38.

³⁹ Ibid. pl. CLXXV, 66.

⁴⁰ Ibid. pl. LVI c, 1–3.

⁴¹ Ibid. pl. CLXXV, 65.

⁴² Ibid. pl. CV, 29, and pl. LIV, c 2.

⁴³ Ibid. pl LVI a.

⁴⁴ Lenzen, H., “Die archaischen Schichten von Eanna”, U.V.B. 7, p. 14, pl. 23 (f).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Heinrich, E., Kleinfunde aus den Archaischen Tempelschichten in Uruk (1936) p. 26, pl. 13 (e).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Ibid. p. 41, pl. 30 (e).

⁴⁷ Ibid. p. 45, pl. 34 (e).

⁴⁸ Ibid. pp. 28 and 29, pls. 17 (a) and (b): and Amiet, P., La Glyptique Mésopotamienne Archaïque (hereafter Amiet) (1961) nos. 655 and 637 respectively.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Frankfort, H., Cylinder Seals (1939) p. 20Google Scholar: Goff, B. L., Symbols of Prehistoric Mesopotamia (1963) Appendix A, pp. 265–267Google Scholar: and Mallowan, M. E. L., “A Cylinder Seal in the Uruk-Jamdat Nasr Style”, Baghdader Mitteilungen 3 (1964) 64–67.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Farkas, Ann, “Review of D. J. Wiseman, Catalogue of the Western Asiatic Seals in the British Museum …”, in Bib. Or. 21 (1964) pp. 196–197Google Scholar: and Porada, , Relative Chronology, p. 155.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Perkins, A. L., The Comparative Archaeology of Early Mesopotamia (1949) p. 147.Google Scholar

⁵² Mallowan, M. E. L., “Excavations at Brak and Chagar Bazar”, Iraq 9 (1947) pl. VIII, 3, G.59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵³ Ibid. p. 100, pl. IX, 1.

⁵⁴ Ibid. p. 130, pl. XX, 15.

⁵⁵ Porada, , Relative Chronology p. 158.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ SirWoolley, L., Ur, The Early Periods, Ur Excavations IV (hereafter U.E. IV) (1955) pp. 104–126.Google Scholar Jemdat Nasr Cemetery graves nos. 17, 42, 93, 154, 155, 159b, 161, 179, 201, 210, 218, 219, 220, 221, 225, 261, 262, 279, 285, 296, 301, 309, 315, 325, 327, 330, 337, 347, 351, 353, and 359.

⁵⁷ Ur pot type JN 23 and 25 cf. Delougaz, P., Pottery from the Diyala Region, O.I.P. LXIII (hereafter O.I.P. LXIII) pl. 46.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ O.I.P. LXIII p. 138.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Moorey, P. R. S., “A Reconsideration of the Excavations on Tell Ingharra”, Iraq 28 (1966) p. 34.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Parrot, A., Tello, Vingt Campagnes de Fouilles, 1877–1933 (1948) pp. 51–52, fig. 12 dGoogle Scholar: and de Genouillac, H., Fouilles de Telloh I, Epoques Présargoniques (1934) pl. 42–43.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Lapis lazuli seals with geometric motifs see: von der Osten, H. H., Ancient Oriental Seals in the Collection of Mrs. Agnes Baldwin Brett, O.I.P. XXXVII (hereafter Brett) (1936) nos. 30–35Google Scholar: von der Osten, H. H., Ancient Oriental Seals in the Collection of Mr. Edward T. Newell, O.I.P. XXII (hereafter Newell) (1934) no. 67Google Scholar: Delaporte, L., Catalogue des Cylindres, Cachets et Pierres Gravées de Style Oriental, Musée du Louvre II (hereafter Louvre II), (1923), A. 3Google Scholar: Wiseman, D. J., Catalogue of the Western Asiatic Seals in the British Museum (hereafter B. M. Catalogue) (1962), pl. 10 1, BM 128841 and pl. 10 m, BM 123572 (also U.E. X, no. 61)Google Scholar: Ashmolean, no. 227: Woolley, C. L., The Royal Cemetery, Ur Excavations II (hereafter U.E. II), nos. 1, 2, 78, 129, 130, 202–205Google Scholar: and Legrain, L., Seal Cylinders, Ur Excavations X (hereafter U.E. X), nos. 37, 51, 53 and 61 (B.M. Catalogue pl. 10 m).Google Scholar

⁶² von der Osten, H. H., “The Snake Symbol and the Hittite Twist”, A.J.A. 30 (1926) p. 407, fig. 6: and Amiet no. 1061.Google Scholar

⁶³ Frankfort, H., Cylinder Seals p. 34, n. 1.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Amiet first drew attention to the probable late date of this group—Amiet, p. 60, pl. 80, nos. 1053–1061. Buchanan, Briggs followed him, Ashmolean pp. 41, 43, no. 227.Google Scholar The Ashmolean seal no. 227 was found in the E.D. III B Cemetery A at Kish: nine seals were found in the Ur Royal Cemetery—U.E. II no. 1, PG 861; no. 2, PG 1374; no. 78, PG 1172; no. 129, PG 1027; no. 130, PG 1197; no. 202, PG 209; and no. 203, PG 226; U.E. X no. 51, PJ grave of Royal Cemetery period; nos. 53 and 61, loose in PJ soil, associated with the Royal Cemetery. A seal impression almost identical with Brett no. 30 was found in the late level of SIS 2—Legrain, L., Archaic Seal Impressions, Ur Excavations III (hereafter U.E. III) (1936), pl. 27 no. 486.Google Scholar And finally two similar seals of a different material from the Diyala were found in E.D. III and Akkadian contexts—Frankfort, H., Stratified Cylinder Seals from the Diyala Region, O.I.P. LXXII (hereafter O.I.P. LXXII), nos. 323 and 572.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Ashmolean, pp. 18 and 20, no. 93: Moorey's recent analysis of Kish allocates the Y Cemetery to E.D. I and II—the deeper levels to I—Iraq 28 (1966) p. 39Google Scholar

⁶⁶ O.I.P. LXXII pl. 72, no. 791, Ag.36:116, and pl. 79, no. 847, Ag.36:324.

⁶⁷ U.E. II no. 5, U.12711, from PG 1412.

⁶⁸ O.I.P. LXXII nos. 791 and 847.

⁶⁹ Amiet no. 740.

⁷⁰ U.E. II no. 206, 11895, and no. 84, U.11757, unstratified: no. 131, U.11868, PG 1162; U.E. X, no. 80, U.19075, PJ grave 38 of the Royal Cemetery period.

⁷¹ Ashmolean p. 12, no. 31, from Jemdat Nasr burial PJN 6. Compare also no. 32.

⁷² Amiet no. 396 from Philadelphia—Legrain, L., The Culture of the Babylonians from the seals in the Collection of the Museum, P.B.S. XIV (hereafter P.B.S. XIV) (1925) no. 53.Google Scholar See also no. 55, a row of crouching ibex.

⁷³ Catalogue of the sale at the Hotel Drouot, Paris, of 04 20, 1964, seal no. 30.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ A re-analysis of the early chronology of Iran has recently been published—Dyson, R. H., “Problems in the Relative Chronology of Iran, 6,000–2,000 B.C.” in Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, edited by Ehrich, R. W., pp. 215–256.Google Scholar Professor Dyson's conclusions are followed here.

⁷⁵ G. le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, gives a good synthesis of their evidence. According to their itineraries, the journey of a merchant caravan from Badakhshan to Baghdad would have lasted over three months.

⁷⁶ Contenau, G. et Ghirshman, R., Fouilles de Tépé Giyan près de Néhavend, 1931–1932 (1933) p. 42, pl. 38, nos. 31 and 42Google Scholar, found at depths of 14 and 11·6 metres.

⁷⁷ Ghirshman, R., Fouilles de Sialk près de Kashan, 1933, 1934, et 1937, I (1938) p. 56.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ le Breton, L., “The Early Periods at Susa, Mesopotamian Relations” Iraq 19 (1957) p. 104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷⁹ R. Ghirshman, op. cit. pp. 69–71, pl. XXX.

⁸⁰ Mecquenem, R. de, “Fouilles de Suse, 1933–1939”, M.D.P. XXIX (1943) p. 15Google Scholar: infant burials found on the Acropolis, probably of Jemdat Nasr date.

⁸¹ Schmidt, E. F., Excavations at Tepe Hissar, Damghan (1937) pp. 122, 133.Google Scholar

⁸² See the following article by Joan Crowfoot Payne, “Lapis Lazuli in Early Egypt”.

⁸³ Grave 426 at the deepest level, 6 m., contains three lapis beads—Moorey, P. R. S., “A Reconsideration of the Excavations on Tell Ingharra (East Kish), 1923–33”, Iraq 28 (1966) p. 46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar It is possible that Grave 426 belongs to the end of the Jemdat Nasr period. Grave 517 at 4·5 m. (which is probably E.D. II) has a string of lapis cylinder beads, ibid. p. 49. Watelin described lapis lazuli as one of the grave gifts of the Y Cemetery although his four catalogued examples did not contain the stone—Watelin, L. Ch., Excavations at Kish, Oxford Field Museum Expedition IV (hereafter Kish IV) (1934) p. 28.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Speiser, E. A., Excavations at Tepe Gawra, I, Levels I–VIII (hereafter Gawra I), pp. 134–135Google Scholar—from Stratum VIII: Mallowan, M. E. L., “The Excavations at Tall Chagar Bazar, and an Archaeological Survey of the Habur Region, 1934–5”, Iraq 3 (1936) p. 24, no. 9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸⁵ Mallowan, M. E. L., “Ninevite 5”, Vorderasiatische Archäologie, Studien und Aufsätze (1964) pp. 142–154Google Scholar: and Porada, , Relative Chronology p. 159.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Little is known of the location of Aratta. To reach it Enmerkar's herald had to traverse Anshan, a kingdom bordering Elam, “From the side to the head”—Kramer, S. N., The Sumerians, Their History, Culture and Character (1963) p. 273Google Scholar—and then cross seven further “mighty mountains”—Kramer, S. N., Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, A Sumerian Epic Tale of Iraq and Iran (1952) p. 17, line 166 ff.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ According to the King List Enmerkar was the second king of the First Dynasty of Uruk, of which Gilgamesh was the fifth—Jacobsen, T., The Sumerian King Eist, A.S. 11 (1939) Table II.Google Scholar Gilgamesh was besieged by Agga, the last king of the First Dynasty of Kish, and Agga's father, En-me-bara-gisi is now known to reign in E.D. II, for his name appears on two vase fragments, one of which was found in the E.D. II–III context of Temple Oval I at Khafajah—Rowton, M. B., C.A.H. I Ch. VI p. 55.Google Scholar It is therefore probable that Enmerkar also reigned in E.D. II at a slightly earlier date.

⁸⁸ Kramer, S. N., Enmerkar and the Eord of Aratta p. 9, line 38 ff.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Ibid. p. 27, line 330 ff. This text is interesting for it proves that “crate-carrying donkeys” were used for long distance transport at this time.

⁹⁰ Ibid. p. 45, line 620 ff.

⁹¹ See note 83.

⁹² The eyes of the copper bull Kh.V.154, see Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 20 p. 29Google Scholar and Frankfort, H., Sculpture of the Third Millennium B.C. from Tell Asmar and Khafajah, O.I.P. XLIV (1939) p. 42 pl. 104, no. 184Google Scholar: and triangular-shaped inlay in stone vases—O.I.C. 20 p. 46.Google Scholar

⁹³ The many foundation deposits invariably consisted of bronze nails and two rectangular tablets, one of lapis lazuli, the other of alabaster—Parrot, A., Le Temple d'Ishtar, M.A.M. I (hereafter M.A.M. I) (1956) p. 52 ff.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ “Fara” seals of lapis lazuli: (i) U.E. II pl. 196, no. 47, U.8228 (Amiet no. 924) illustrated in Fig. 8, was found in PG 165, in which also occurred Pot Type 1. In the Diyala Pot 1 occurs in contexts dated to E.D. II–III. There is therefore a possibility that this tomb should be dated to E.D. II. (ii) U.E. II no. 72, U.12413 (Amiet no. 961) from PG 1227, not listed in the Tabular Analysis: and (iii) P.B.S. XIV, no. 67 (Amiet no. 959).

⁹⁵ Ashmolean no. 133.

⁹⁶ B.M. Catalogue pl. 13 e, BM 104493; pl. 15 d, BM 122550, from PG 1236 with two E.D. III style seals; and pl. 17 g, BM 21122, assigned by Wiseman to E.D. III, but placed by R. Boehmer, in his review of Wiseman, in E.D. II—OLZ. 61 (1966) col. 38.Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Louvre I pl. 3, 4, Telloh 84.

⁹⁸ Amiet no. 1140.

⁹⁹ Louvre II pl. 65, 2 and 3, nos. A.44 and A.45.

¹⁰⁰ U.E. X pl. 6, no. 88, U.18951.

¹⁰¹ Porada, E. and Buchanan, B., Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in North American Collections I, The Collection of the Pierpont Morgan Library (hereafter C.A.N.E.S.) (1948) pl. X, no. 62.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Mallowan, M. E. L., “The Early Dynastic Period in Mesopotamia”, C.A.H. I, Ch. XVI (1967) pp. 9–10 and 39–42.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Ibid.

¹⁰⁴ Nissen, Jorg, Zur Datierung des Königsfriedhofes von Ur (1966) pp. 143–144.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Ibid. p. 143.

¹⁰⁶ Buchanan, B., “The Date of the So-Called Second Dynasty Graves of the Royal Cemetery at Ur”, J.A.O.S. 74 (1954) pp. 147–153.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Loc. cit.

¹⁰⁸ Loc. cit.: Buchanan's re-dated graves from Ur: Predynastic Cemetery graves dated to the Akkadian era: PG 143, 395, 535, 543, 544, 549, 559, 563A, 681, 686, 697, 717, 724, 726, 796, 861, 1173, 1276.

Predynastic Cemetery graves dated to the Post-Akk. period: PG 35, 323, 345, 397, 689, 867. Nissen, however, assigns PG 397 and 689 to late Akk. and PG 867 to Early Akk.

“Second Dynasty” Cemetery graves dated to the Akk. period: PG 695, 735, 871.

“Second Dynasty” Cemetery graves dated to Ur III, prior to the reign of Amar-Suen: PG 1422, 1845, 1847, 1849, 1850 (to reign of Shulgi).

Sargonid Cemetery graves to Late Akkadian: PG 506, 540, 647, 673. Nissen assigns 673 to Post-Akk.

Sargonid Cemetery graves to Post-Akkadian: PG 435, 671, 704, 825, 963, 973, 985, 986, 991, 1003, 1012, 1067, 1092, 1094, 1095, 1205. Nissen assigns 435, 704, 985 and 1205 to Late Akk.

¹⁰⁹ PG 337, 580, 777, 779, 789, 800, 1050, 1054, 1232, 1236, 1237, 1332, 1618, 1631, 1648.

¹¹⁰ O.I.P. LXIII p. 146, note 134.

¹¹¹ U.E. II p. 371.

¹¹² Where the allocation of a grave was originally given by Buchanan, in J.A.O.S. 74, see note 108Google Scholar, the tomb number is simply followed by his name. Where the tomb is dated on the evidence of the pottery-chart or the seals, the principal pot or seal so used has been noted. Early Dynastie graves in the Predynastic Cemetery: PG 15, seal 101; PG 31, seal 99; PG 36, Pot 16; PG 37, seal 34; PG 76, Pot 109; PG 88, Pot 101; PG 91, Pot 243; PG 121, Pot 1; PG 153, seal 133; PG 156, seal 26; PG 159, Pot 61; PG 165, seal 47 (E.D. II); PG 169, Pot 63; PG 176, Pot 67; PG 208, Pots 7 and 209; PG 209, seal 202; PG 219, seal 166 (Amiet no. 1066); PG 221, seal 138 and Pot 61; PG 226, seal 203; PG 227, seal 48; PG 237, Pot 243; PG 249, Pots 7 and 109; PG 288, seal 158; PG 313, seal 42 (Amiet no. 1059); PG 333, Pots 61, 101, 209, 243; PG 337, Royal Tomb; PG 356, Pot 243; PG 357, seal 38; PG 362, seal 8, Pot 243; PG 381, seal 139; PG 383, seal 164, Pot 243; PG 420, Pots 67, 203, 208 and 243; PG 473, Pot 67; PG 482, seal 162; PG 580, Royal Tomb; PG 755, Tomb of Mes-kalam-dug; PG 760, Pot 208; PG 777, Royal Tomb; PG 779, Royal Tomb; PG 789, Royal Tomb; PG 800, Royal Tomb (Pu'abi); PG 895, Seal 75 and Pot 243; PG 1027, seal 129; PG 1043, seal 161 and Pot 7; PG 1050, Royal Tomb; PG 1054, Royal Tomb; PG 1068, seal 69; PG 1088, Pot 143; PG 1111, Pot 186; PG 1130, Seals 28 and 35; PG 1133, Pot 209; PG 1136, seal 106; PG 1151, Pots 101 and 143; PG 1163, seal 15; PG 1170, Pot 243; PG 1172, seal 78; PG 1178, seal 71; PG 1195, Royal Cemetery jewellery; PG 1197, seal 130; PG 1216, seal 135 and Pot 243; PG 1232, Death Pit; PG 1234, Pot 223; PG 1236, Royal Tomb; PG 1237, The Great Death Pit; PG 1270, Pot 143; PG 1299, Pot 143; PG 1312, seal 33 and Pot 243; PG 1315, seal 30; PG 1322, seal 149; PG 1332, Death Pit; PG 1382, Seals 3 and 67; PG 1385, seal 143; PG 1387, seal 146; PG 1391, Pot 243; PG 1403, seal 68; PG 1404, seal 280; PG 1407, seals 46 and 66; PG 1412, seal 5; PG 1421, Royal Cemetery jewellery; PG 1556, Pots 83, 208 and 243; PG 1563, Pot 61; PG 1588, Pot 243; PG 1603, Pots 92 and 243; PG 1625, seal 37; PG 1636, Pot 243; PG 1648, Royal Tomb; PG 1650, seal 124 and Pot 16; PG 1749, seal 102; PG 1750, seal 20.

¹¹³ Akkadian graves in the Pre-dynastic Cemetery: PG 184, Pot 187; PG 202, Buchanan, (JAOS 74, p. 152, note 33)Google Scholar; PG 319, Pot 145, which occurs in PGs 184 and 202; PG 369, Pot 187; PG 395, Buchanan; PG 535, Buchanan; PG 543, Buchanan; PG 544, Buchanan; PG 549, Buchanan; PG 559, Buchanan; PG 563A, Buchanan; PG 655, Pot 132; PG 681, Buchanan; PG 686, Buchanan; PG 697, Buchanan; PG 717, Buchanan; PG 724, Buchanan; PG 726, Buchanan; PG 780, Boehmer dates seal 159 to the Akkadian period, see Boehmer, R., Die Entwicklung der Glyptik während der Akkad-zeit (hereafter Boehmer) (1965) p. 143, no. 17 aCrossRefGoogle Scholar; PG 792, seal no. 165, dated by Boehmer to Akk., Boehmer p. 143, no. 22; PG 796, Buchanan; PG 822, Pot 132; PG 861, Buchanan; PG 1173, Buchanan; PG 1276, Buchanan; PG 1398, Pot 197; PG 1400, seals 74 and 279A (Boehmer nos. 25 and 88); PG 1405, seal 218 (Boehmer no. 87). Nissen assigns PG 792 and 1400 to ED and PG 1398 to Ur III.

¹¹⁴ Post-Akkadian graves in the Pre-dynastic Cemetery: PG 35, Buchanan; PG 125, Pot 110; PG 143, Buchanan (p. 151, note 28); PG 323, Buchanan; PG 345, Buchanan; PG 397, Buchanan; PG 689, Buchanan; PG 840, Pot 41; PG 867, Buchanan; PG 1651, Pot 110. Nissen assigns PG 397, 689 and 840 to Late Akk., 867 to Early Akk. and 1651 to ED III.

¹¹⁵ PG 1420, Buchanan, seal no. 53.

¹¹⁶ U.E. II pl. 136.

¹¹⁷ Ibid. pl. 133.

¹¹⁸ Ibid. This pendant was not found with the necklace shown with it.

¹¹⁹ A fine picture of this piece is in Margueron, J., Mesopotamia, Archaeologia Mundi (1965) pl. 42.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ U.E. II pl. 138.

¹²¹ Ibid. pls. 91–93.

¹²² Ibid. e.g. pls. 108–116.

¹²³ Ibid. pl. 153, U.12442.

¹²⁴ Ibid. pls. 95–98.

¹²⁵ Ibid. pl. 103, U.14483A and U.10988.

¹²⁶ Ibid. pl 156, U.9255.

¹²⁷ Ibid. pl. 107, U.10556 and pl. 110, U.10412.

¹²⁸ Koldewey, R., Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa …, W.V.D.O.G. 15 (1911) pl. 9, 79Google Scholar: Schmidt, E. F., Persepolis I (1953) pp. 186, 209 and 263Google Scholar: idem, Persepolis II (1957) p. 71.

¹²⁹ Pritchard, J. B., A.N.E.T. (1955) p. 46, line 74Google Scholar; Kramer, S. N., Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta p. 39, line 528.Google Scholar

¹³⁰ U.E. II pl. 87, U.12357a.

¹³¹ Ibid. pl 151, U.9361.

¹³² Ibid. pl. 174. With a hardness of 6 on Mohs' scale lapis lazuli would have been hard enough to sharpen weapons of copper or bronze.

¹³³ Ibid.

¹³⁴ Ibid. pl. 142.

¹³⁵ Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 17 p. 71, fig. 61Google Scholar; and M.A.M. I pp. 158–160.Google Scholar

¹³⁶ Moortgat-Correns, U., “Kleiner Männerkopf aus Lapis Lazuli”, Z.A. 24 (1967) pp. 299–301.Google Scholar

¹³⁷ N.H. XXXVII xxxix 120.Google Scholar

¹³⁸ U.E. II nos. 14, 15, 141, 209 and U.E. X no. 133.

¹³⁹ U.E. II nos. 16–20, 22, 23, 26–30, 98–101, 138.

¹⁴⁰ U.E. II nos. 16–20. No. 16 is inscribed with the queen's name: no. 19 with the name of A-bar-gi.

¹⁴¹ U.E. II nos. 35, 37, 139, 140, 286: U.E. X 125.

¹⁴² U.E. II nos. 33, 36, 39, 105–107; U.E. X 119, 120, 129.

¹⁴³ Moortgat, A., Vorderasiatische Rollsiegel, Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Steinschneidekunst (hereafte V.A.R.S.) (1940) no. 141.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁴ Newell no. 39; B.M. Catalogue pl. 24 a (U.E. II no. 36), pl. 24 b, pl. 24 d and pl. 26 d: and Eisen, G. A., Ancient Oriental Cylinder and Other Seals with a description of the Collection of Mrs. William H. Moore, O.I.P. XEVII (hereafter Moore) (1940) no. 26.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁵ C.A.N.E.S. nos. no, 121, 123; B.M. Catalogue pl. 23 h (U.E. II, no. 209); V.A.R.S. nos. 102, 134–136, and 141; O.I.P. LXXII no. 769.

¹⁴⁶ U.E. II no. 65, Amiet no. 1039.

¹⁴⁷ U.E. III pls. 30 and 57, no. 517—from S.I.S. I. See also Amiet no. 1063.

¹⁴⁸ U.E. II no. 216 and Amiet no. 1064.

¹⁴⁹ Boehmer no. 202.

¹⁵⁰ Ibid. no. 302.

¹⁵¹ Ibid. no. 45.

¹⁵² U.E. X no. 139, Boehmer no. 252 (fig. 11 e): and U.E. II, no. 217, Boehmer, no. 33.

¹⁵³ U.E. II no. 65 (Amiet 1039) seal of A-kalamshar, no. 67 (Amiet 1043), no. 118 (Amiet 1046), no. 146 (Amiet 1113), now B.M. Catalogue pl. 18 b; C.A.N.E.S. no. 85 (Amiet pl. 77 bis D); V.A.R.S. no. 112; Brett no. 26 (Amiet pl. 77 bis I); Moore no. 18; B.M. Catalogue pl. 18 a & c; P.B.S. XIV, no. 112; Louvre II A. 50 (Amiet 1020); and U.E. X no, 156.

¹⁵⁴ U.E. II no. 66 (Amiet 1044), 68 (Amiet 1041) now B.M. Catalogue pl. 17 i, 69, 70 (Amiet 1128), 158, 161, 216, 220, 280, 302; C.A.N.E.S. nos. 65, 78, 80 (Amiet 1073), 81, 82; O.I.P. LXXII, no. 372 (Amiet 1115); V.A.R.S. nos. 113, 114, 115 (Boehmer p. 142 XIX), 116, 119; Brett no. 21 (Amiet 1127), 22, 25; Newell no. 83; B.M. Catalogue pl. 16 b and 20 h; Ashmolean no. 207; P.B.S. XIV no. 93; and Louvre II A. 37.

¹⁵⁵ U.E. II no. 53, 166 (Amiet 1066); C.A.N.E.S. nos. 88, 89, 92; O.I.P. LXXII,nos. 355, 375; V.A.R.S. nos. 118 and 126; Delaporte, L., Catalogue des Cylindres Orientaux … de la Bibliothèque Nationale (hereafter Bib. Nat.) (1910), no. 47.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁶ U.E. II nos. 7 (Amiet 1047), 12, 133, 135 and 298: O.I.P. LXXII no. 331; Newell no. 113; B.M. Catalogue pl. 22 d and 23 c and U.E. X nos. 80 and 81 (Amiet 1052).

¹⁵⁷ See pp. 33–34.

¹⁵⁸ prom the collections analysed which principally consist of the seals published in C.A.N.E.S., O.I.P. LXXII (Diyala), the Moore, Brett and Newell collections, U.E. II and U.E. X, the British Museum, Ashmolean, Louvre, Bibliothèque Nationale, Berlin and Philadelphia catalogues.

¹⁵⁹ M.A.M. I p. 28, pl. LXXI.

¹⁶⁰ Ibid. pp. 28, 158–160, pl. LVIII.

¹⁶¹ Ibid. p. 37.

¹⁶² Ibid. pp. 163–168.

¹⁶³ Ibid. pp. 70–92.

¹⁶⁴ Parrot, A., Syria 42 (1965) pp. 216–224.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁵ Ibid. pl. XV 4, p. 220.

¹⁶⁶ Ibid. pp. 218–219.

¹⁶⁷ Ibid. p. 218, pl. XV 3.

¹⁶⁸ Moorey, , Iraq 28 (1966) pp. 30 and 44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁶⁹ Mackay, E., Report on the Excavation of the ‘A’ Cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia, Part I (1925) p. 53Google Scholar; and A Sumerian Palace and the ‘A’ Cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia, Part II (1929) pp. 133 and 182–3.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁰ Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 19 p. 36Google Scholar and Delougaz, P., The Temple Oval at Khafajah, O.I.P. LIII (1940) pp. 86–87, figs. 78 and 79.Google Scholar

¹⁷¹ Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 13 p. 101Google Scholar and O.I.P. LIII p. 91.

¹⁷² O.I.C. 13 pp. 107–111Google Scholar Graves K.55 and K.95.

¹⁷³ Gadd, C. J., C.A.H. I, Ch. XIX p. 38.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁴ U.E. II p. 372.

¹⁷⁵ Kramer, S. N., From the Tablets of Sumer (1956) Appendix A, p. 268.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁶ Gadd, op. cit. p. 21.

¹⁷⁷ For the 29 Akkadian graves in the Predynastic Cemetery see note 113. Three graves in the Second Dynasty cemetery are allocated to the period by Buchanan: PG 695, 735 and 871. There are another 21 in the Sargonid cemetery; PG 67, Seal no. 322 (Boehmer 112); PG 384, seal 363 (Boehmer 1138); PG 445, seal 319 (Boehmer 614); PG 484, Seal 373 (Boehmer 576); PG 489, seal 359 (Boehmer 962); PG 496, seal 320 (Boehmer 629); PG 503, seal 308 (Boehmer 194); PG 506, Buchanan; PG 540, Buchanan; PG 576, seal 273 (Boehmer 1053) and Pot 132; PG 635, seals 238 (Boehmer 574)and 372(Boehmer 5 7 5); PG 647, Buchanan; PG 673, Buchanan (assigned by Nissen to Ur III); PG 699, seal 364 (Boehmer 1139); PG 703, seal 313 (Boehmer 302); PG 848, Pot 201; PG 859, seal 207 (Boehmer 772) (assigned by Nissen to Ur III); PG 968, seal 315 (Boehmer 673); PG 1002, seal 233 (Boehmer 316); PG 1154, seal 316 (Boehmer 621); PG 1199, Pot 197; PG 1213, Seal 358 (Boehmer 848).

¹⁷⁸ U.E. II pp. 151–160 for descriptions of PG 543, 697 and 780 in the Predynastic cemetery, now assigned to the Akkadian period.

¹⁷⁹ For instance in the Second Dynasty graves PGs 1422, 1845, 1847, 1849 and 1850, attributed by Buchanan to the first part of the Third Dynasty of Ur.

¹⁸⁰ Moorey, , Iraq 28 (1966) p. 30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁸² Kish IV p. 50.

¹⁸² Ibid. pl. XXXIV 3: Moore no. 37; Boehmer no. 860.

¹⁸³ Kish IV pl. XXXV.

¹⁸⁴ Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 16 pp. 47–48, fig. 31.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁵ Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 17 pp. 35–37, figs. 28–29.Google Scholar I am most grateful to Professor Seton Lloyd for drawing my attention to this reference.

¹⁸⁶ Ibid. fig. 28, before restoration, and fig. 29, row 2, after restoration.

¹⁸⁷ Gawra I pp. 134–135.

¹⁸⁸ Starr, R. F. S., Nuzi I p. 380.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁹ Mallowan, M. E. L., Iraq 9 (1947) pp. 66, 114, Pl. XV, no. 9.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁰ Ibid. p. 113, pl. XV, no. 4.

¹⁹¹ Ibid. pp. 177–178, pl. XXXV.

¹⁹² Mackay, E., A Sumerian Palace and the ‘A’ Cemetery at Kish, Part II (1929) p. 185.Google Scholar

¹⁹³ Mackay, E., Report on the Excavations of the ‘A’ Cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia, Part I (1925) pp. 53–56.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁴ Ibid. pl. VII, 2: and Part II pl. LX.

¹⁹⁵ Speiser, E. A., “Preliminary Excavations at Tepe Gawra”, A.A.S.O.R. IX (1927–1928) p. 36, pl. 79, bottom row.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁶ Mallowan, M. E. L., Iraq 9 (1947) pp. 177–178, pl. XXXV.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁷ Twenty-five Akkadian seals with developed E.D. III contest frieze designs: C.A.N.E.S. no. 145 (Boehmer 187); Newell 87 (Boehmer 18), 101 (Boehmer 304); Moore 20 (Boehmer 202), 47 (Boehmer 37); U.E. II 73 (Boehmer 6), 74 (Boehmer 25), 157 (Boehmer 24), 159 (Boehmer 17 a) also in B.M. Catalogue as ED III Pl. 16 g; 160 (Boehmer 72), 163 (Boehmer 86), 165 (Boehmer 22), 167 (Boehmer 35) also in Amiet as ED III; 175 (Boehmer 45), 217 (Boehmer 33), 218 (Boehmer 87), 226 (Boehmer 201), 279A (Boehmer 88), 308 (Boehmer 194); U.E. X 130 (Boehmer 46), 139 (Boehmer 252); B.M. Catalogue as ED III Pl. 22 c (Boehmer, review of B.M. Catalogue in OLZ. 61 col. 38); Ashmolean 274 (Boehmer 1653); Louvre II A.63 (Boehmer 8); P.B.S. XIV 82 (Boehmer 20).

¹⁹⁸ Twenty-five Akkadian ‘fighting pairs’ seals: C.A.N.E.S. 165 (Boehmer 633); O.I.P. LXXII 685 (Boehmer 867), 686 (Boehmer 777); Moore 30 (Boehmer 744); U.E. II 168 (Boehmer 11), 169 (Boehmer 222), 181 (Boehmer 573), 182 (Boehmer 611), 227 (Boehmer 109), 239 (Boehmer 307), 246 (Boehmer 793), 290 (Boehmer 654), 310 (Boehmer 449), 311 (Boehmer 183), 313 (Boehmer 302), 319 (Boehmer 614), 328 (Boehmer 797), 372 (Boehmer 575), 373 (Boehmer 576;, 376 (Boehmer 578); U.E. X 182 (Boehmer 787); Louvre II A.71 (Boehmer 765), A.130 (Boehmer 844); V.A.R.S. 157 (Boehmer 173), 173 (Boehmer 790).

¹⁹⁹ Three seals depicting gods battling: C.A.N.E.S. 176 (Boehmer 857), 177 (Boehmer 823); Moore 37 (Boehmer 860).

²⁰⁰ Eleven presentation scenes: C.A.N.E.S. 130 (Boehmer 818), 190 (Boehmer 1100), 199 (Boehmer 1198) 247 (Boehmer 1488); O.I.P. LXXII 644 (Boehmer 1467), 674 (Boehmer 961); U.E. II 197 (Boehmer 1446), 273 (Boehmer 1053); Louvre I D.24 (Boehmer 1175); Louvre II A.168 (Boehmer 1473); V.A.R.S. 217 (Boehmer 1542).

²⁰¹ Nougayrol, J., “Documents du Habur, Le Sceau de Daguna”, Syria 37 (1960) pp. 209–214, fig. 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁰² “If a seal is made of lapis lazuli, he will be altogether lucky (literally ‘he will have a god altogether’), that god will make him happy.” K.A.R. 185 rev. I 11, translated by Professor C. J. Gadd in a letter to Professor M. E. L. Mallowan of 17.xi.64: for another translation see Goff, B. L., Symbols of Prehistoric Mesopotamia (1963) p. 199Google Scholar “… a seal of lapis lazuli (portends) that he shall have power; his god shall rejoice over him.”

²⁰³ U.E. II, no. 207 (Boehmer 772), 275 (Boehmer 920), 359 (Boehmer 962); U.E. X 228 (Boehmer 1350), 235 (Boehmer 1065), 301 (Boehmer 1463); Unpublished British Museum seals BM 12285, 22427, 89165 (Boehmer 735), 89366, 103329, 129461 (Boehmer 699): and V.A.R.S. 243 (Boehmer 801).

²⁰⁴ I am grateful to Mr. Moorey foe proposing this plausible alternative solution.