1 For a detailed study of the CHM concept, see: Payoyo, PBCries of the Sea: World Inequality, Sustainable Development and the Common Heritage of Humanity (1997, Martinus Nijhoff)Google Scholar; Baslar, KThe Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind in International Law (1998, Martinus Nijhoff)Google Scholar; and Egede, EAfrica and the Deep Seabed Regime: Politics and International Law of the Common Heritage of Mankind (2011, Springer) at 55–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Buck, SJThe Global Commons: An Introduction (1998, Island Press)Google Scholar. Other global commons such as outer space and the moon have also been said to be CHM. Art 136 of the Law of the Sea Convention 1982 states: “The Area and its resources are the common heritage of mankind.” Art 1(1) defines the Area as “the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction”. Under art 133 the resources of the Area are: “all solid, liquid or gaseous mineral resources in situ in the Area at or beneath the seabed, including polymetallic nodules” and any such resources recovered from the Area are referred to as “minerals”.

3 Strathern, MProperty, Substance & Effect: Anthropological Essays on Persons and Things (1999, Athlone)Google Scholar at 134.

4 See Cao, L “Culture change” (2007) 47 Virginia Journal of International Law 357Google Scholar at 371, citing Kroeber, AL and Kluckholn, C, two influential anthropologists who, in their publication Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions (1952, Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University)Google Scholar, documented more than 161 formal definitions of the word “culture”.

5 Murden, S “Culture in world affairs” in Baylis, J, Smith, S and Owens, P (eds) The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations (4th ed, 2008, Oxford University Press) 420Google Scholar.

6 Id at 420.

7 See art 1, available at: <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001271/127160m.pdf> (last accessed 18 June 2012). See also preamble 2 to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (Cultural Expressions Convention), adopted 20 October 2005 and entered into force 18 March 2007, available at: <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001429/142919e.pdf> (last accessed 18 June 2012).

8 See preamble 5 to the Cultural Diversity Declaration. Art 4 of the Cultural Expressions Convention states that “cultural content” refers to “the symbolic meaning, artistic dimension and cultural values that originate from or express cultural identities”.

9 Renteln, ADThe Cultural Defense (2004, Oxford University Press)Google Scholar at 10 and Renteln, AD “Cultural bias in international law” (1998) 92 American Society of International Law Proceedings 232Google Scholar at 233.

10 Jennings, R and Watt, A (eds) Oppenheim's International Law, Vol I (9th ed, 1997, Oxford University Press)Google Scholar at 87.

11 See for example Feuer, G “International development law: The establishment of a francophone school of thought” (1991) 3(2) The European Journal of Development Research 70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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13 Id, Kunz, at 373.

14 Verzijl, JHWInternational Law in Historical Perspective Vol I (1968, Sijhoff) at 435–36Google Scholar. See also Jennings and Watt (eds) Oppenheim's International Law, above at note 10 at 87–89.

15 Anghie, A “Finding the peripheries: Sovereignty and colonialism in nineteenth century international law” (1999) 40(1) Harvard International Law Journal 1 at 22–34Google Scholar.

16 TO Elias and Akinjide, RAfrica and the Development of International Law (2nd revised ed, 1988, Kluwer Publishers) at 3–18Google Scholar and Anand, RP “Attitude of the Asian-African states toward certain problems of international law” (1966) 15 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 55 at 57–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Renteln “Cultural bias”, above at note 9; P Meerts (ed) Culture and International Law, above at note 12; Cao “Culture change”, above at note 4; Anand (ed) Cultural Factors in International Relations, above at note 12; Chimni “Asian civilizations and international law”, above at note 12.

18 Cao, ibid.

19 Id at 371. René-Jean Dupuy, the renowned French international law scholar, is reported to have raised the following query: “Given its cultural diversity, is it conceivable for humanity to have a common international law?” See Lagrange, E “The thoughts of René-Jean Dupuy: Methodology or poetry of international law?” (2011) 22(2) The European Journal of International Law 425 at 428CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Jessup, PC “Diversity and uniformity in the law of nations” (1964) 58 American Journal of International Law 341CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The preamble to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 2007 affirmed that: “All peoples contribute to the diversity and richness of civilisations and cultures, which constitute the common heritage of humankind”. Declaration available at: <http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf> (last accessed 18 June 2012). Also, see art 1 of the Cultural Diversity Declaration, above at note 7, which states: “Culture takes diverse forms across time and space. This diversity is embodied in the uniqueness and plurality of the identities of the groups and societies making up humankind. As a source of exchange, innovation and creativity, cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature. In this sense, it is the common heritage of humanity and should be recognized and affirmed for the benefit of present and future generations.”

21 Id, Jessup, at 343.

22 Art 4, para 8 of the Cultural Expressions Convention, above at note 7, defines “interculturality” as “the existence and equitable interaction of diverse cultures and the possibility of generating shared cultural expressions through dialogue and mutual respect”.

23 Starke, JG “International law and cultural differences between western and non-western countries” (1985) 59 The Australian Law Journal 735Google Scholar at 735. See also Thakore, K “Some recent international codification conferences and cultural interactions” in Anand (ed) Cultural Factors in International Relations,Google Scholar above at note 12, 129.

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26 Id, Wagner, at 847.

27 Murden “Culture in world affairs”, above at note 5.

28 Huntington, SP “The clash of civilizations?” (1993) 72(3) Foreign Affairs 22CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 23.

29 It has been said that the proposal for a legal regime for the deep seabed was already in place before Arvid Pardo's speech. See Larschan, B and Brennan, BC “The common heritage of mankind principle in international law” (1982–83) Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 305Google Scholar at 318; and Rembe, NSAfrica and the International Law of the Sea (1980, Sijthoff & Noordhoff) at 36Google Scholar.

30 See Maltese note verbale of 17 August 1967 to the UN Secretary General (A/6695, 18 August 1967; vol II, doc 12.1) and Dr Pardo's speech to the General Assembly's First Committee (A/C.1/PV.1515, 1 November 1967).

31 GA res 2340 (XXII) of 18 December 1967.

32 GA res 2574 (XXIV) of 15 December 1969.

33 GA res 2749 (XXV) of 17 December 1970.

34 GA res 3029 (XXVII) of 18 December 1972.

35 See M Gerstle “The politics of UN voting: A view of the seabed from the glass palace” (occasional paper no 7, 1970, Law of the Sea Institute, University of Rhode Island); Henkin, L “Old politics and new directions” in Churchill, R, Simmonds, KR and Welch, J (eds) New Directions in the Law of the Sea Vol III (1973, Oceana Publications) 3 at 8–10Google Scholar; and Churchill, RR and Lowe, AVLaw of the Sea (1999, Manchester University Press) at 227–28Google Scholar.

36 Brown, ESea-Bed Energy and Minerals: The International Legal Regime Vol 2 (2001, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers) at 23–44Google Scholar and Anand, RP “Common heritage of mankind: Mutilation of an ideal” (1997) 37 Indian Journal of International Law 1Google Scholar.

37 Joyner, CC “Legal implications of the concept of the common heritage of mankind” (1986) 35 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 190 at 191–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Ibid.

39 Id at 193.

40 Id at 194, citing Dolman, AResources, Regimes, World Order (1981, Pergamon Press) at 226–30Google Scholar and Larschan and Brennan “The common heritage of mankind principle”, above at note 29 at 316–17. See also generally Gorove, S “The concept of ‘common heritage of mankind’: A political, moral or legal innovation?” (1971–72) 9 San Diego Law Review 390Google Scholar, raising some problematic issues on the idea of ownership of the Area by mankind.

41 Joyner, ibid.

42 Juergensmeyer, JC and Wadley, JB “The common lands concept: A ‘commons’ solution to a common environmental problem” (1974) 14 Natural Resources Journal 361Google Scholar.

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44 Id at 41, citing statement made on 27 March 1792 from The Works of James Madison, vol IV at 478–79.

45 See Opoku, K “The law of the sea and the developing countries” (1973) Revue de Droit International de Sciences Diplomatiques et Politiques 28–45Google Scholar, cited in Rembe Africa and the International Law, above at note 29 at 52–53.

46 MCW Pinto “Statement” in S Allen and JP Craven (eds) “Alternatives in deepsea mining” (proceedings, Law of the Sea Institute, University of Hawaii, workshop, Ka'u Hawaii, 11–14 December 1978) 13 at 13–15.

47 PB Engo (1984) “Issues of the First Committee at UNCLOS III” in AW Koers and BH Oxman (eds) “The 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea” (proceedings, Law of the Sea Institute, 17th annual conference, co-sponsored by Fridtjof Nansen Institute, Oslo, Norway, 13–16 July 1983) 33 at 38.

48 Hearings before the Sub-committee on Oceanography Miscellaneous of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, 92d Cong.2d Sess.237, 242 (1972), cited in Harry, MA “The deep seabed: The common heritage of mankind or arena for unilateral exploitation” (1992) 40 Naval Law Review 207Google Scholar at 215.

49 UNCLOS III official records, vol I, 186, para 52.

50 Id, vol II, 33, para 36.

51 Id, vol II, 59, para 78.

52 Gorove “The concept of ‘common heritage of mankind’”, above at note 40.

53 Mgbeoji, I “Beyond rhetoric: State sovereignty, common concern, and the inapplicability of the common heritage concept to plant genetic resources” (2003) 16 Leiden Journal of International Law 821CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 826. See also Larschan and Brennan “The common heritage of mankind principle”, above at note 29 at 320–26 for an interesting general analysis of the positions taken by both developed and developing states at UNCLOS III on the application of the concept to the resources of the sea.

54 UNCLOS III official records, vol II, 35, para 65.

55 Division of Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea Office The Law of the Sea, Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind, Legislative History of Articles 133 to 150 and 311(6) of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1996, UN) at 14.

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57 This is a process by which a person or group of people adapt to and assimilate the culture in which they live.

58 Renteln The Cultural Defense, above at note 9 at 6.

59 Gorove “The concept of ‘common heritage of mankind’”, above at note 40.

60 Renteln “Cultural bias”, above at note 9.

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75 Rembe Africa and the International Law of the Sea, above at note 29 at 53.

76 Dunning, B “A comparative study of legal ideology: African land tenure systems” (1990) 10 Third World Law Journal 297 at 302Google Scholar.

77 UNCLOS III official records, vol I, 84, para 57.

78 LOSC, art 153, para 1.

79 Id, paras 2 and 3.

80 Id, art 140.

81 Huntington “The clash of civilizations?”, above at note 28.