Hostname: page-component-76d6cb85b7-lcgwf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-07-14T00:43:07.877Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

CHILDREN OF HOMOSEXUALS MORE APT TO BE HOMOSEXUALS? A REPLY TO MORRISON AND TO CAMERON BASED ON AN EXAMINATION OF MULTIPLE SOURCES OF DATA

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 July 2010

WALTER R. SCHUMM
WALTER R. SCHUMM
Affiliation:
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Ten narrative studies involving family histories of 262 children of gay fathers and lesbian mothers were evaluated statistically in response to Morrison's (2007) concerns about Cameron's (2006) research that had involved three narrative studies. Despite numerous attempts to bias the results in favour of the null hypothesis and allowing for up to 20 (of 63, 32%) coding errors, Cameron's (2006) hypothesis that gay and lesbian parents would be more likely to have gay, lesbian, bisexual or unsure (of sexual orientation) sons and daughters was confirmed. Percentages of children of gay and lesbian parents who adopted non-heterosexual identities ranged between 16% and 57%, with odds ratios of 1.7 to 12.1, depending on the mix of child and parent genders. Daughters of lesbian mothers were most likely (33% to 57%; odds ratios from 4.5 to 12.1) to report non-heterosexual identities. Data from ethnographic sources and from previous studies on gay and lesbian parenting were re-examined and found to support the hypothesis that social and parental influences may influence the expression of non-heterosexual identities and/or behaviour. Thus, evidence is presented from three different sources, contrary to most previous scientific opinion, even most previous scientific consensus, that suggests intergenerational transfer of sexual orientation can occur at statistically significant and substantial rates, especially for female parents or female children. In some analyses for sons, intergenerational transfer was not significant. Further research is needed with respect to pathways by which intergenerational transfer of sexual orientation may occur. The results confirm an evolving tendency among scholars to cite the possibility of some degree of intergenerational crossover of sexual orientation.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Biosocial Science , Volume 42 , Issue 6 , November 2010 , pp. 721 - 742
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Armesto, J. C. (2002) Developmental and contextual factors that influence gay fathers' parental competence: a review of the literature. Psychology of Men & Masculinity 3, 67–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asten, M. A. (1997) Lesbian Family Relationships in American Society: The Making of an Ethnographic Film. Praeger, Westport, CT.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, J. M., Bobrow, D., Wolfe, M. & Mikach, S. (1995) Sexual orientation of adult sons of gay fathers. Developmental Psychology 31, 124–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ball, C. A. (2003) Lesbian and gay families: gender nonconformity and the implications of difference. Capital University Law Review 31, 691–749.Google Scholar
Barrett, H. & Tasker, F. (2001) Growing up with a gay parent: views of 101 gay fathers on their sons' and daughters' experiences. Educational and Child Psychology 18, 62–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumrind, D. (1995) Commentary of sexual orientation: research and social policy implications. Developmental Psychology 31, 130–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, C. S. (2001) The psychology of parenthood for the midlife lesbian mother of teens. Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Berkeley/Alameda, CA. Dissertation Abstracts International 62(03), 1612B. UMI No. 3009210.Google Scholar
Biblarz, T. J. & Stacey, J. (2010) How does the gender of parents matter? Journal of Marriage and Family 72, 3–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigner, J. J. (ed.) (2006) An Introduction to GLBT Family Studies. Haworth Press, New York, NY.Google Scholar
Black, D., Gates, G., Sanders, S. & Taylor, L. (2000) Demographics of the gay and lesbian population in the United States: evidence from available systematic sources. Demography 37, 139–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boenke, M. (1999) Trans Forming Families: Real Stories about Transgendered Loved Ones. Walter Trook Publishing, Imperial Beach, CA.Google Scholar
Boenke, M. (2003) Trans Forming Families: Real Stories about Transgendered Loved Ones (2nd edn). Oak Knoll Press, Hardy, VA.Google Scholar
Bos, H. M. W., van Balen, F., Sandfort, T. G. M. & van den Boom, D. C. (2006) Children's Psychosocial Adjustment and Gender Development in Planned Lesbian Families. Working paper, Social and Behavioral Sciences Department of Education, University of Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Bozett, F. W. (1980) How and why gay fathers disclose their homosexuality to their children. Family Relations 29, 173–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bozett, F. W. (1987) Children of gay fathers. In Bozett, F. W. (ed.) Gay and Lesbian Parents. Praeger, New York, NY, pp. 39–57.Google Scholar
Bozett, F. W. (1988) Social control of identity by children of gay fathers. Western Journal of Nursing Research 10, 550–565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broude, G. J. & Greene, S. J. (1976) Cross-cultural codes on twenty sexual attitudes and practices. Ethnology 15, 409–429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burroway, J. (2006) Paul Cameron Conquers Cambridge. Box Turtle Bulletin, April 15. URL: http://www.boxturtlebulletin.com/Articles/000,012.htm (accessed 10th March 2008).Google Scholar
Butler, A. C. (2005) Gender differences in the prevalence of same-sex sexual partnering: 1988–2002. Social Forces 84, 421–449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, P. (1999) Homosexual parents: testing ‘common sense’ – a literature review emphasizing the Golombok and Tasker longitudinal study of lesbians' children. Psychological Reports 85, 282–322.Google Scholar
Cameron, P. (2006) Children of homosexuals and transsexuals more apt to be homosexual. Journal of Biosocial Science 38, 413–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cameron, P. & Cameron, K. (1996) Homosexual parents. Adolescence 31, 757–776.Google ScholarPubMed
Canning, T. T. (2005) Gay and heterosexual fathers: a comparative analysis of child behavior and well-being. Doctoral dissertation, Capella University, Minneapolis, MN. Dissertation Abstracts International, 2006, 66(07), 3995B. UMI No. 3182597.Google Scholar
Carpenter, C. & Gates, G. J. (2008) Gay and lesbian partnership: evidence from California. Demography 45, 573–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohler, B. J. (2006) Life-course social science perspectives on the GLBT family. In Bigner, J. J. (ed.) An Introduction to GLBT Family Studies. Haworth Press, New York, NY, pp. 23–49.Google Scholar
Connolly, C. M. (2006) A process of change: the intersection of the GLBT individual and his or her family of origin. In Bigner, J. J. (ed.) An Introduction to GLBT Family Studies. Haworth Press, New York, NY, pp. 5–21.Google Scholar
Doherty, W. J. (2006) Foreword. In Bigner, J. J. (ed.) An Introduction to GLBT Family Studies. Haworth Press, New York, NY, pp. xvii–xxiii.Google Scholar
Drucker, J. (1998) Families of Value: Gay and Lesbian Parents and their Children Speak Out. Plenum Press (Insight Books), New York, NY.Google Scholar
Elovitz, M. E. (1995) Adoption by lesbian and gay people: the use and misuse of social science research. In Elovitz, M. E. & Schneider, C. (eds) Legal Issues Facing the Nontraditional Family, 1995. Practising Law Institute, New York, NY, pp. 172–191[reprinted from The Duke Journal of Gender Law and Policy, Spring 1995, pp. 207–225].Google Scholar
Falk, P. J. (1994) The gap between psychosocial assumptions and empirical research in lesbian-mother child custody cases. In Gottfried, A. E. & Gottfried, A. W. (eds) Redefining Families: Implications for Children's Development. Plenum Press, New York, NY, pp. 131–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, S. K., Easterly, S. & Lazear, K. J. (2008) Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender families and their children. In Gullotta, T. P. & Blau, G. M. (eds) Family Influences on Childhood Behavior and Development: Evidence-based Prevention and Treatment Approaches. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, New York, pp. 187–208.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, B. (1999) Children of lesbian and gay parents: a review of the literature. Marriage and Family Review 29, 57–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flaks, D. K. (1993) Lesbian couples and their children: psychological and legal implications. Doctoral dissertation, Widener University, Chester, PA.Google Scholar
Flaks, D. K., Ficher, I., Masterpasqua, F. & Joseph, G. (1995) Lesbians choosing motherhood: a comparative study of lesbian and heterosexual parents and their children. Developmental Psychology 31, 105–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garner, A. (2005) Families Like Mine: Children of Gay Parents Tell It Like It Is. HarperCollins, New York.Google Scholar
Gartrell, N., Banks, A., Hamilton, J., Reed, N., Bishop, H. & Rodas, C. (1999) The National Lesbian Family Study: 2. Interviews with mothers of toddlers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 69, 362–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gartrell, N., Banks, A., Reed, N., Hamilton, J., Rodas, C. & Deck, A. (2000) The National Lesbian Family Study: 3. Interviews with mothers of five-year-olds. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 70, 542–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gartrell, N., Deck, A., Rodas, C., Peyser, H. & Banks, A. (2005) The National Lesbian Family Study: 4. Interviews with the 10-year-old children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 75, 518–524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillespie, P. (ed) (1999) Love Makes a Family: Portraits of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Parents and Their Families. University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst.Google Scholar
Goldberg, A. E. (2006) The transition to parenthood for lesbian couples. Journal of GLBT Family Studies 2(1), 13–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, A. E. (2007) Talking about family: disclosure practices of adults raised by lesbian, gay, and bisexual parents. Journal of Family Issues 28, 100–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, A. E. & Perry-Jenkins, M. (2007) The division of labor and perceptions of parental roles: lesbian couples across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 24, 297–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, A. E. & Sayer, A. (2006) Lesbian couples' relationship quality across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Marriage and Family 68, 87–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golombok, S., Spencer, A. & Rutter, M. (1983) Children in lesbian and single-parent households: psychosexual and psychiatric appraisal. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 24(4), 551–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, A. R. (2003) Sons Talk About Their Gay Fathers: Life Curves. Harrington Park Press, Binghamton, New York, NY.Google Scholar
Gottman, J. S. (1989) Children of gay and lesbian parents. Marriage and Family Review 14, 177–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, R. (1978) Sexual identity of 37 children raised by homosexual or transsexual parents. American Journal of Psychiatry 135, 692–697.Google ScholarPubMed
Harris, M. B. & Turner, P. H. (1985/1986) Gay and lesbian parents. Journal of Homosexuality 12(2), 101–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hays, D. & Samuels, A. (1989) Heterosexual women's perceptions of their marriages to bisexual or homosexual men. In Bozett, F. W. (ed.) Homosexuality and the Family. Harrington Park Press, New York, NY, pp. 81–100.Google Scholar
Herek, G. M. (1991) Myths about sexual orientation: a lawyer's guide to social science research. Law & Sexuality 1, 133–172.Google Scholar
Herek, G. M. (2006) Legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the United States: a social science perspective. American Psychologist 61(6), 607–621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hicks, S. (2005) Is gay parenting bad for kids? Responding to the ‘very idea of difference’ in research on lesbian and gay parents. Sexualities 8, 153–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howey, N. & Samuels, E. (2000) Out of the Ordinary: Essays on Growing Up with Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Parents. St Martin's Press, New York.Google Scholar
Javaid, G. A. (1983) Sexual development of the adolescent daughter of a homosexual mother. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 22, 196–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Javaid, G. A. (1993) The children of homosexual and heterosexual single mothers. Child Psychiatry and Human Development 23, 235–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huggins, S. L. (1989) A comparative study of self-esteem of adolescent children of divorced lesbian mothers and divorced heterosexual mothers. In Bozett, F. W. (ed.) Homosexuality and the Family. Harrington Park Press, New York, pp. 123–135.Google Scholar
Jedzinak, J. A. (2004) Growing up in a lesbian family: a qualitative study of the adult daughter's experience. Doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University, San Francisco Bay, CA. Dissertation Abstracts International 65(05), 2631B. UMI No. 3133453.Google Scholar
Kuba, S. A. (1981) Being-in-a-lesbian family: the preadolescent child's experience. Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Fresno, CA. Dissertation Abstracts International 42(10), 4196B. UMI No. 8207549.Google Scholar
Kunin, J. D. (1998) Predictors of psychosocial and behavioral adjustment of children: a study comparing children raised by lesbian parents to children raised by heterosexual parents. Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, San Diego, CA. Dissertation Abstracts International 59(06), 3094B. UMI No. 9835785.Google Scholar
Kuvalanka, K. A. (2007) Coping with heterosexism and homophobia: young adults with lesbian parents reflect on their adolescence. Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland. Dissertation Abstracts International 68(04), 1677A.Google Scholar
Larson, J. & Micheels-Cyrus, M. (1986) Seeds of Peace: A Catalogue of Quotations. New Society Publishers, Philadelphia, PA.Google Scholar
Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T. & Michaels, S. (1994) The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.Google Scholar
Lewis, K. G. (1980) Children of lesbians: their point of view. Social Work 25, 198–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, K. G. (1992) Children of lesbians: their point of view. In Maggoire, D. J. (ed.) Lesbians and Child Custody: A Casebook. Garland, New York, NY, pp. 85–98.Google Scholar
McNeill, K. F. (1998) The lack of differences between gay/lesbian and heterosexual parents: a review of the literature. National Journal of Sexual Orientation Law 4, 1–24.Google Scholar
Miller, B. (1979) Gay fathers and their children. The Family Coordinator 28, 544–552.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, T. G. (2007) Children of homosexuals and transsexuals more apt to be homosexual: a reply to Cameron. Journal of Biosocial Science 39, 153–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ng, E. M. (1999) Adult daughters of lesbian-parent families. Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Berkeley/Alameda, CA. Dissertation Abstracts International 60(05), 2388B. UMI No. 9929431.Google Scholar
Norusis, M. J. (2004) SPSS 13.0 Advanced Statistical Procedures Companion. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.Google Scholar
Norusis, M. J. (2006) SPSS 14.0 Guide to Data Analysis. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.Google Scholar
O'Connell, A. (1993) Voices from the heart: the developmental impact of a mother's lesbianism on her adolescent children. Smith College Studies in Social Work 63, 281–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, C. J. (1992) Children of lesbian and gay parents. Child Development 63, 1025–1042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, C. J. (1995) Lesbian and gay parenthood. In Bornstein, M. H. (ed.) Handbook of Parenting: Status and Social Conditions of Parenting, Vol. 3. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, pp. 255–274.Google Scholar
Patterson, C. J. (1996) Lesbian and gay parents and their children. In Savin-Williams, R. C. & Cohen, K. M. (eds) The Lives of Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals: Children to Adults. Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Orlando, FL, pp. 274–304.Google Scholar
Patterson, C. J. (2004) Gay fathers. In Lamb, M. E. (ed.) The Role of the Father in Child Development. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp. 397–416.Google Scholar
Patterson, C. J. (2005) Lesbian and gay parents and their children: summary of research findings. In Lesbian & Gay Parenting. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 5–22.Google Scholar
Patterson, C. J. (2006) Children of lesbian and gay parents. Current Directions in Psychological Science 15, 241–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, C. J., Fulcher, M. & Wainright, J. (2002) Children of lesbian and gay parents. In Bottoms, B. L., Kovera, M. B. & McAuliff, B. D. (eds) Children, Social Science, and the Law. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 176–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, C. J., Hurt, S. & Mason, C. D. (1998) Families of the lesbian baby boom: children's contact with grandparents and other adults. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 68, 390–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paul, J. P. (1986) Growing up with a gay, lesbian, or bisexual parent: an exploratory study of experiences and perceptions. Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 16th May 1986. Dissertation Abstracts International 47(07), 2756A. UMI No. 8624890.Google Scholar
Peplau, L. A. & Beals, K. P. (2004) The family lives of lesbians and gay men. In Vangelisti, A. L. (ed.) Handbook of Family Communication. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 233–248.Google Scholar
Rafkin, L. (1990) Different Mothers: Sons and Daughters of Lesbians Talk about their Lives. Cleis Press, Pittsburgh, PA.Google Scholar
Redding, R. E. (2008) It's really about sex: same-sex marriage, lesbigay parenting, and the psychology of disgust. Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy 15, 127–193.Google Scholar
Rees, R. L. (1979) A comparison of children of lesbian and single parent heterosexual mothers on three measures of socialization. Doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Berkeley, CA. Dissertation Abstracts International 40(07), 3418–3419B.Google Scholar
Rekers, G. & Kilgus, M. (2002) Studies of homosexual parenting: a critical review. Regent University Law Review 14(2), 343–382.Google Scholar
Rimalower, L. & Caty, C. (2009) The mamas and the papas: the invisible diversity of families with same-sex parents in the United States. Sex Education 9, 17–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivers, I., Poteat, V. P. & Noret, N. (2008) Victimization, social support, and psychosocial functioning among children of same-sex and opposite-sex couples in the United Kingdom. Developmental Psychology 44, 127–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosier, P. & Hauschild, M. (1999) Get Used to It: Children of Gay and Lesbian Parents. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, New Zealand.Google Scholar
Saffron, L. (1997) What about the Children? Sons and Daughters of Lesbian and Gay Parents Talk about their Lives. Cassell, London.Google Scholar
Saffron, L. (1998) Raising children in an age of diversity – advantages of having a lesbian mother. Journal of Lesbian Studies 2(4), 35–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schumm, W. R. (2005) Empirical and theoretical perspectives from social science on gay marriage and child custody issues. St Thomas Law Review 18, 501–549.Google Scholar
Schumm, W. R. (2008) Re-evaluation of the “no differences” hypothesis concerning gay and lesbian parenting as assessed in eight early (1979–1986) and four later (1997–1998) dissertations. Psychological Reports 103, 275–304.Google ScholarPubMed
Sirota, T. H. (1997) A comparison of adult attachment style dimensions between women who have gay or bisexual fathers and women who have heterosexual fathers. Doctoral dissertation, School of Education, New York University, Garden City, NY. Dissertation Abstracts International 58(01), 138B. UMI No. 9718726.Google Scholar
Sirota, T. H. (2009) Adult attachment style dimensions in women who have gay or bisexual fathers. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 23, 289–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stacey, J. & Biblarz, T. J. (2001) (How) does the sexual orientation of parents matter? American Sociological Review 66, 159–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tasker, F. (2005) Lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and their children: a review. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 26, 224–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tasker, F. & Golombok, S. (1997) Growing Up in a Lesbian Family: Effects on Child Development. Guilford, New York, NY.Google Scholar
Turner, P. H., Scadden, L. & Harris, M. B. (1990) Parenting in gay and lesbian families. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy 1(3), 55–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, G. & Rahman, Q. (2005) Born Gay: The Psychobiology of Sex Orientation. Peter Owen, London.Google Scholar