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“Fire by Night, Cloud by Day”: Exile and Refuge in Postwar London
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 January 2020
Abstract
Susan Pennybacker's presidential plenary to the 2017 North American Conference on British Studies in Denver, Colorado, explores the lives of four of the subjects of her book (in progress) of the same title. It identifies the kinds of archival and ethnographic sources that allow new treatments of the exile, émigré, and expatriate communities of London after the close of World War II and of those who contributed in various ways to the ethos of metropolitan political culture in the “late empire” and Cold War era. The essay focuses on the South African Ruth First, the Indian diplomat Mrs. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, the Indian academician Achin Vanaik, and the South Asian Londoner Suresh Grover, a member of the Monitoring Group, a legal assistance and anti-discrimination organization in the capital. It suggests the importance of scholarship that reckons with known and notable activist persons who led and represented many others in their challenges to global politics from a base in the “mammoth crossroads, the secure and unsafe haven that is London.”
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References
1 The Ruth First Papers (hereafter RF), GB/101/117, http://www.ruthfirstpapers.org.uk/project-documents, were donated by First's family to the Institute for Commonwealth Studies and include numerous seminar papers, surveys, and reports to which First contributed. Ruth First (1925–1982) joined her husband Joe Slovo (Yossel Mashel Slovo, 1926–1995) in London in 1964. Their three daughters, Gillian, Shawn, and Robyn Slovo, are now writers and arts figures in the United Kingdom, the United States, and South Africa.
2 See RF/1/3/2 for Ruth First's diary, a cover page, and letters M–Z, preserved.
3 On First, see especially Slovo, Gillian, Every Secret Thing (London, 2009)Google Scholar; Pinnock, Don, ed., Ruth First, Voices of Liberation 2 (Cape Town, 1997)Google Scholar; and Wieder, Alan, Ruth First and Joe Slovo in the War against Apartheid (New York, 2013)Google Scholar.
4 The South African Mary Benson (1919–2000) was banned in 1966 and thereafter led the International Defense and Aid Fund, the leading forerunner and fundraising body for the Anti-Apartheid Movement in London. See Benson, Mary, A Far Cry (New York, 1989), 144Google Scholar. The South African, Oxford-educated writer and activist Freda Levson (1911–2004) was an International Defense and Aid Fund stalwart. On the these two organizations and noncommunist activism, see Skinner, Rob, The Foundations of Anti-Apartheid (Basingstoke, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the communist and far left, see Brown, Gavin, “Anti-Apartheid Solidarity in the Perspective and Practices of the British Far Left in the 1970s and 1980s,” in Waiting for the Revolution: The British Far Left from 1956, ed. Smith, Evan and Worley, Matthew (Manchester, 2017), 66–87Google Scholar.
5 The wars in southern Africa of the Cold War era formed an indelible influence on First's life and death. See, for example, Davis, Stephen R., The ANC's War against Apartheid: Umkhonto we Sizwe and the Liberation of South Africa (Bloomington, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
6 That text (in progress) bears the title of this essay. See Exodus 13:21–22 (all quotations and references are to the New International Version): “By day the Lord went ahead of them in a pillar of cloud to guide them on their way and by night in a pillar of fire to give them light, so that they could travel by day or night. Neither the pillar of cloud by day nor the pillar of fire by night left its place in front of the people”; and Isaiah 4:5: “Then the LORD will create over all of Mount Zion and over those who assemble there a cloud of smoke by day and a glow of flaming fire by night; over everything the glory will be a canopy.” See Pennybacker, Susan, “A Cold War Geography: South African Anti-Apartheid Refuge and Exile in London, 1945–1994,” in Africans in Exile: Mobility, Law and Identity, ed. Riley, Nathan Carpenter and Benjamin Lawrance (Bloomington, 2018), 185–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
7 First's spouse, Joe Slovo, returned from exile in 1990 to play a central role in the negotiations with the de Klerk government, seeking a framework for a transfer of power from the apartheid state in the aftermath of the 1990 release of Nelson Mandela from prison, promoting a gradualist model that envisioned an incremental journey from capitalism to socialism, a road as yet untaken. Slovo, Joe, Slovo: The Unfinished Autobiography of ANC Leader Joe Slovo (Melbourne, 1997), 126–85Google Scholar; Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, chaps. 10 and 11.
8 The use of “late empire,” connotes the power relations of continued UK colonial control of many territories well into the last decades of the century, the often unchanged property relationships of now-independent states, and the continued ethos of colonization in the social relations and political cultures of these entities. See, for example, Joel Hebert, “The Sun Never Sets: Rethinking the Politics of Late British Decolonization, 1968 to the Present” (PhD. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2019).
9 Slovo, Slovo, 63–64.
10 RF/2/1/9, Joe Slovo to First, 26 August 1975. See Pennybacker, Susan, “Anti-Apartheid Testimony: Unmaking the Histories of South African Jewish Communists,” in Ethics, Art and Representations of the Holocaust: Essays in Honor of Berel Lang, ed. Gigliotti, Simon, Golombe, Jacob, and Gould, Caroline Steinberg (Lanham, 2014), 121–40Google Scholar.
11 RF/6/13A, Don Pinnock interview with Wolfie Kodesh, 36–40; RF/6/2(A), Don Pinnock interview with Mary Benson, 4–5; and Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, 71–71, 106–7. See also Williams, Gavin Peter, “Ruth First: Political Journalist, Researcher and Teacher,” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 32, no. 1 (2014): 1–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Webb, Christopher, “Fighting Talk: Ruth First's Early Journalism, 1947–1950,” Review of African Political Economy 42, no. 143 (2015): 7–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
12 RF/6/2(A), Don Pinnock interview with Mary Benson, 33.
13 The Treason Trial involved 156 defendants from many factions of the South African opposition to the apartheid state, including Nelson Mandela; they were found not guilty. The Sharpeville massacre of 29 March 1960 was a shooting upon a mass demonstration of six thousand to seven thousand people against the Pass Laws in a township in the Transvaal. Sixty-nine were killed and 180 were injured by police fire. This and the Soweto Rising of June 1976 occasioned the two greatest departures of South African anti-apartheid activists to London. The Rivonia Farm arrests on the property leased by theater entrepreneur and former Haganah fighter Arthur Goldreich uncovered armed struggle plotting. The “Detention Law” of 2 May 1963 allowed police to detain those suspected of political activity for ninety days without trial. Slovo left South Africa for London in 1963 before First's arrest. This period saw the onset of armed struggle politics, ultimately welding together the South African Communist Party and ANC forces in exile, in the country, and in the southern African proxy wars. (See, for example, Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, 119–27.) Whites at this stage could not join the ANC, a factor in the growth of the reconstituted Communist Party of South Africa, the South African Communist Party.
14 Slovo, Every Secret Thing, 105–21; Zalmanovich, Tal, “From Apartheid South Africa to Socialist Budapest and Back: Communism, Race, and Cold War Journeys,” Stichproben. Wiener Zeitschrift für kritsche Afrikastudien 18, no. 34 (2018): 111–34Google Scholar; Gevisser, Mark, The Dream Deferred: Thabo Mbeki (Johannesburg, 2007), part 4Google Scholar; Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, 144–204.
15 RF/6/2(A), Don Pinnock interview with Mary Benson, 38: “In the end he rejected what I'd written and he got Ruth to write it. So I mean, they [the ANC] had very great confidence in her.”
16 Her writings include South West Africa (London, 1963); 117 Days (London, 1965), on her previous imprisonment; South West Africa: A Travesty of Trust (with Ronald Segal) (London, 1967); and The Barrel of a Gun: Political Power in Africa and the Coup d État in Africa (London, 1970)Google Scholar.
17 Auriol Stevens, “The Loneliness of the Long Distance Revolutionary,” Guardian (UK), 30 October 1970, 11. The title is an allusion to Sillitoe's, AlanThe Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner (London, 1959)Google Scholar.
18 See First, Ruth, Steele, Jonathan, and Gurney, Christabel, eds., The South African Connection: Western Investment in Apartheid (London, 1972)Google Scholar; First, Ruth, Libya: The Elusive Revolution (London, 1975)Google Scholar; and (issued after her departure for Mozambique) First, Ruth and Scott, Ann, Olive Schreiner (London, 1980)Google Scholar.
19 RF/2/1/2/2(A), First to “J,” 3 December 1964.
20 RF/2/1/6/64, First to “Lionel,” 16 September 1964, likely the South African writer Lionel Abrahams. See Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, 146.
21 RF/2/1/6/64, First to “Lionel,” 16 September 1964.
22 See Slovo, Slovo, 179; RF/6/2 11 (A), Don Pinnock interview with Rica Hodgson, 8, 24; Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, 28, 92; see also note 88 below.
23 RF/6/1/(A), Don Pinnock interview with Rowley Arenstein, 20. Arenstein (1918–1996) was a Durban lawyer and communist who opposed the armed struggle turn and resigned or was expelled from the SACP after 1961. He advised the Inkatha Freedom Party in its negotiations at the close of the apartheid era. See Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, 85–86.
24 Gevisser, The Dream Deferred, part 4; RF/1/3/1/7, First to Joe Slovo, 10 November 1977; see also RF/2/1/2/B, Joe Slovo to First, 1978: “I'm on a Tambo-led delegation to the Soviet Union and from there, guess what, we're going to Vietnam.” On their travel, see Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, 151, 155, 182–83, 205–8.
25 RF/6/2(A), Don Pinnock interview with Mary Benson, 15.
26 Stevens, “The Loneliness of the Long Distance Revolutionary.”
27 RF/1/3/1/7, First to Joe Slovo, 14 December1976, 10 November 1977, 1 March 1978, 5 September 1978; RF/2/1/9, First to Gillian Slovo, 4 March 1979.
28 RF/1/3/1/7, First to Joe Slovo, 28 September 1976; RF/6/2(A), Don Pinnock interview with Mary Benson, 46; RF/6/11(A), Don Pinnock interview with Rica Hodgson, 8. On Hodgson, see Hodgson, Rica, Foot Soldier for Freedom: A Life in South Africa's Liberation Movement (Johannesburg, 2010)Google Scholar.
29 RF/1/3/1/7, First to Joe Slovo, 30 December 1977.
30 Slovo would serve as the first minister of housing in the first post-apartheid South African cabinet, until his death from cancer in 1995. See Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, chaps. 11 and 12.
31 RF/2/1/9, Joe Slovo to First, 26 August 1975. He likely refers to the Institute of Asian and African Countries, Lomonosov Moscow State University.
32 RF/2/1/1/9, Joe Slovo to First, 26 August 1975. One can infer a reference to the slide in Kenya toward greater repression and toward a single-party state, a matter of increasing disillusionment.
33 RF/2/1/9, Joe Slovo to First, 26 August 1975. The South African prime minster John Vorster (1915–83) served with Kenneth Kaunda (1924–) as a moderator on 26 August 1975 at a Victoria Falls negotiation between defiant Rhodesian Ian Smith and some African organizations, attempting to forge a settlement in the war in that state. Slovo and the ANC and SACP regarded such a meeting as a traitorous betrayal of forces on the ground.
34 RF/2/1/9, Joe Slovo to First, 26 August 1975. Conflict with organized Trotskyism was mirrored in the tensions between the official Anti-Apartheid Movement in the United Kingdom and its City of London branch, which was expelled for its “deviationism” and led by South African exile and former-SACP cadre Norma Kitson, spouse of David Kitson (1919–2010), and her followers. David Kitson had served twenty years in jail in South Africa, charged with bomb-making, and was arrested after the Rivonia defendants with whom he had worked. His prominence failed to mitigate the doctrinal conflict that brewed in the ANC, the Anti-Apartheid Movement, and the SACP over ostensible “ultra-left” behavior. See, for example, Brown, “Anti-Apartheid Solidarity,” Smith and Worley, Waiting for the Revolution.
35 RF/1/3/4, First to Joe Slovo, 30 September 1975.
36 RF/1/3/2, First to Shawn Slovo, 26 April 1979.
37 RF/1/3/1/3, First to Rosalynde Ainslee, [n. d.] 1979.
38 RF/1/3/1/2, First to Shawn Slovo, 25 June 1980.
39 RF/1/3/1/2, First to Joe Slovo, 19 May1977.
40 First, Ruth, South West Africa (London, 1963), 183–84Google Scholar. First noted that India's suggestion that a UN committee go to South Africa lost by a single vote, 184. See RF/2/1/1, for correspondence on this book and on the United Nations. See also Wieder, Ruth First and Joe Slovo, 17, 149, 153, 167–68. On the Namibian question in the larger context of Mrs. Pandit's United Nations struggles, see Bhagavan, Manu, India and the Quest for One World: The Peacemakers (Basingstoke, 2013), 56–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Anderson, Carol, Bourgeois Radicals: The NAACP and the Struggle for Colonial Liberation, 1941–1960 (New York, 2015), 69–132Google Scholar.
41 Mrs. Pandit died in 1990; Nehru was born in 1889 and died in 1964.
42 See Bhagavan, Manu, The Peacemakers: India and the Quest for One World (New Delhi, 2012)Google Scholar; Bhagavan, India and the Quest for One World. Bhagavan is completing Mrs. Pandit's most recent biography. See also Ankit, Rakesh, “In the Twilight of Empire: Two Impressions of Britain and India at the United Nations, 1945–47,” South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 38, no. 4 (2015): 574–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ankit, Rakesh, “Between Vanity and Sensitiveness: Indo-British Relations during Vijayalakshmi Pandit's High-Commissionership (1954–61),” Contemporary British History 30, no. 1 (2016): 20–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Mrs. Pandit's own writings encompass works of memoir, journalism, and essays. See especially Pandit, Vijaya Lakshmi, The Scope of Happiness: A Personal Memoir (New York, 1979)Google Scholar; Mehta, Chandralekha, Sahgal, Nayantara, and Dar, Rita, eds., Sunlight Surround You (New Delhi, 1970)Google Scholar, presents a series of tributes to her.
43 Gita Saghal, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December/January 2019, London, part 3, 1, transcript in possession of the author.
44 For an excellent study of the complexity of India's position on repatriation of Indian exiles and migrants in the Nehru era, see Kalathmika Natarajan, “India, Britain and the Complexities of ‘Reciprocal Citizenship,’” paper presented at the North American Conference on British Studies annual meeting, Denver, CO, November 2017. See also Bhagavan, India and the Quest for One World, 56–65; and Mazower, Mark, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton, 2009), 28–65, 149–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
45 Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit Papers (hereafter VLP Papers), Archival collections #654, 1911–1986; #655 1905-35, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi (hereafter NMML).
46 VLP Papers, San Francisco Conference of the UN, 20 May 1945, “Statement at an SFO Rally,” 20, NMML.
47 VLP Papers, subject file #38, “Notes on Smuts’ speech,” 21 November 1946, 4/5, NMML.
48 See Rahila Gupta's discussion of the work of Manu Bhagavan in “Trustee of the Future: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit,” Media Diversified, 29 October 2016, https://mediadiversified.org/2016/10/29/trustee-of-the-future-vijaya-lakshmi-pandit/.
49 VLP Papers, VLP to Krishna Menon, 19 August 1948, 79–80, NMML.
50 VLP Papers, Dayal to VLP, 24 December 1948, 89–90, NMML.
51 VLP Papers, 19 January 1961, 4/34, NMML. See also Bhagavan, India and the Quest for One World, 65.
52 See Saul Dubow, Apartheid, 1948–1994 (Oxford, 2014), 49–50, 83, 174, 191, 278, 307n24.
53 See VLP Papers, Priestley to VLP, 27 June1960, NMML. On Benson, see “Mary Benson,” Guardian, 22 June 2002.
54 VLP Papers, “Speeches in the USA,” speeches file #18, September–December 1963, 10/27, 3/73, 5/75, 6/16, NMML.
55 See Cachalia, Amina, When Hope and History Rhyme (Johannesburg, 2013), part 4Google Scholar.
56 In a wide literature, see, for example, Lee, Christopher J., ed., Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Moment and Its Political Afterlives (Athens, OH, 2019)Google Scholar; Burton, Antoinette, Africa in the Indian Imagination: Race and the Politics of Postcolonial Citation, foreword by Hofmeyr, Isabel (Durham, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
57 See Guha, Ramachandra, India after Gandhi, (New York, 2007), 405–568Google Scholar; V. L. Pandit, The Scope of Happiness, 1–23, 317–25; Prakash, Gyan, Emergency Chronicles, Democracy's Turning Point (Princeton, 2019) 130, 347Google Scholar. For a history of earlier emergencies, see Ghosh, Durba, Gentlemanly Terrorists: Political Violence and the Colonial State in India, 1919–1947 (Cambridge, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
58 VLP Papers, subject file #50, NMML; William Borders, “Indira Gandhi's Aunt Says She Is ‘Profoundly Troubled’ at Direction India Is Taking,” New York Times, 31 October 1976, https://www.nytimes.com/1976/10/31/archives/indira-gandhis-aunt-says-she-is-profoundly-troubled-at-direction.html.
59 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 1, 2. Among Achin Vanaik's recent writings, see The Rise of Hindu Authoritarianism: Secular Claims, Communal Realities (London, 2017).
60 Wog: the derogatory “Western-oriented gentleman”; Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 2, 1, transcript in possession of the author.
61 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 2, 2, transcript in possession of the author.
62 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 2, 7, transcript in possession of the author.
63 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 2, 7, transcript in possession of the author. See the essays collected in Smith, Evan and Worley, Matthew, eds., Against the Grain: The British Far Left from 1956 (Manchester, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smith and Worley, Waiting for the Revolution.
64 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 2, 7, transcript in possession of the author. See Waters, Rob, Thinking Black, 1964–1985 (Oakland, 2019), chaps. 1–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
65 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 1, 11, transcript in possession of the author. See also Achin Vanaik, “The Free University for Black Studies,” in Race Today, 4, 1972, 239; Sawh, Roy, From Where I Stand (London, 1987), chaps. 5 and 6Google Scholar; Waters, Thinking Black, 155–57; Zalmanovich, Tal, “‘What Is Needed Is an Ecumenical Act of Solidarity’: The World Council of Churches, the 1969 Notting Hill Consultation on Racism, and the Anti-Apartheid Struggle,” Safundi: The Journal of South African and American Studies 20, no. 2 (2019): 174–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
66 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 2, 10, 11–12, transcript in possession of the author.
67 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 2, 7, transcript in possession of the author.
68 Achin Vanaik, Interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, part 2, 8, Delhi, transcript in possession of the author.
69 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, part 2, 14, Delhi, transcript in possession of the author.
70 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, part 2, 14, Delhi, transcript in possession of the author.
71 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 2, 19, transcript in possession of the author.
72 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, Delhi, part 1, 12, transcript in possession of the author.
73 Achin Vanaik, interview by Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, part 2, 22, Delhi, transcript in possession of the author.
74 Achin Vanaik, interview with Susan Pennybacker, March 2013, part 2, 22, Delhi, transcript in possession of the author. See “Blair Peach Killed by Police at 1979 Protest, Met Report Finds,” Guardian, 27 April 2010, https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/apr/27/blair-peach-killed-police-met-report.
75 See “About Us,” The Monitoring Group,” http://www.tmg-uk.org/about/, accessed 7 November 2019.
76 Suresh Grover, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December 2016, London, 1, transcript in possession of the author.
77 See Grover, Suresh and Patel, Jagdish, eds., Coming of Age: 1976 and the Road to Anti-Racism (London, 2017)Google Scholar.
78 See “International Marxist Group (IMG), Later the Socialist League,” Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick Library, https://mrc-catalogue.warwick.ac.uk/records/IMG, accessed 7 November 2019. The former leader of the International Marxist Group, Tariq Ali (1943–), born in British India, remains a noted London-based writer and activist. See also Smith and Worley, Against the Grain, introduction and chaps. 3, 4, and 10.
79 See “Timeline,” Southall Black Sisters, https://southallblacksisters.org.uk/about/southall-black-sisters-timeline/, accessed 6 December 2019.
80 Suresh Grover, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December 2018, London, transcript in possession of the author.
81 Suresh Grover, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December 2016, London, 9–10, transcript in possession of the author.
82 Suresh Grover, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December 2016, 10, London, transcript in possession of the author; Suresh Grover, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December 2018, London, transcript in possession of the author.
83 Suresh Grover, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December 2016, 10, London, transcript in possession of the author.
84 RF/1/3/2, First to Shawn Slovo, 18 March 1981, 1 May 1981.
85 RF/1/3/2, First to Shawn Slovo, 25 June 1980.
86 RF/1/3/5, First to Shawn Slovo, 1 June 1982. Francis Pym (1922–2008) was secretary of state for foreign and commonwealth affairs when First wrote. Sir John Nott (1932–) was secretary of state for defense during the Falklands War of April–June 1982. Pope John Paul II visited Britain in late May and early June 1982.
87 RF/1/3/5, First to Shawn Slovo, 1 June 1982. For an interview with Thompson, see “Falklands War—E. P. Thompson on Sinking of Belgrano,” 4 May 1982, British Universities Film and Video Council, http://bufvc.ac.uk/tvandradio/lbc/index.php/segment/0008800072016.
88 In a developing and conflicted literature, see Ellis, Stephen, External Mission: The ANC in Exile, 1960–90 (Oxford, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bundy, Colin, “Cooking the Rice outside the Pot? The ANC and the SACP in Exile, 1960 to1990,” in Treading the Waters of History: Perspectives on the ANC, ed. Kondlo, Kwandiwe, Saunders, Chris, and Zondi, Siphamandla (Braamfontein, 2014), 52–71Google Scholar; Davis, The ANC's War against Apartheid.
89 First, Ruth, Black Gold: The Mozambican Miner, Proletarian and Peasant (New York, 1983)Google Scholar.
90 On First's death and events surrounding it, see Slovo, Every Secret Thing, especially chaps. 1–4, 14, 31–33.
91 The National Archives (hereafter TNA), FCO 105/971, JSs 015/15, 1, Stewart/Maputo to Pretoria, #245, 18 August 1982; 2, Stewart/Maputo to FCO, 18 August 1982.
92 TNA, FCO 105/971, JSs 015/15, 3, Lyne, UK Mission, NYC, to Long, SAFD, Pretoria, 20 August 1982, and JSs 015/15, 5, Fergusson to FCO, tel. #819, 24 August 1982.
93 TNA, FCO 105/971, JSs 015/15, 6, Stewart, Maputo to FCO, tel. #264, 24 August 1982.
94 TNA, FCO 105/971, JSs 015/157, Foreign Secretary Pym to Pretoria and Maputo, tel. #206, 26 August 1982.
95 TNA, FCO 105/971, JSs 015/15, 17, Cranley Onslow, FCO, to Robert Hughes, Chairman of the AAM, London, 29 September 1982.
96 TNA, FCO 105/971, JSs 015/15, 20, Stewart, Maputo, to FCO, tel. # 353, 29 October 1982.
97 See Ancer, Jonathan, Spy: Uncovering Craig Williamson (Auckland Park, 2017), chap. 22Google Scholar.
98 See “Stephen Lawrence Murder: A Timeline of How the Story Unfolded,” BBC News, 13 April 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-26465916; see also the report and related summaries by Mark Ellison, “Stephen Lawrence Independent Review, Gov.UK, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/stephen-lawrence-independent-review.
99 Suresh Grover, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December 2016, London, 7, transcript in possession of the author.
100 Suresh Grover, interview by Susan Pennybacker, December 2016, 7, London, transcript in possession of the author.
101 See “About Us,” The Grenfell Tower Community Monitoring Project, https://grenfellcommunitymonitoringproject.com/, accessed 7 November 2019.
102 See Joe Slovo, interview by Julie Frederiske, Julie Frederikse Collection, AL2460, A19.18 (1990), 6, South African History Archive, Johannesburg. I thank Frederiske for permission to cite this interview.
103 In a related recent literature, see, for example, Schofield, Camilla and Jones, Ben, “‘Whatever Community Is, This Is Not It’: Notting Hill and the Reconstruction of ‘Race’ in Britain after 1958,” Journal of British Studies 58, no. 1 (2019): 142–73Google Scholar; Walkowitz, Judith R., “Feminism and the Politics of Prostitution in King's Cross in the 1980s,” Twentieth Century British History 30, no. 2 (2019): 231–63CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.
104 In this point, and at many other junctures in the text, the underlying argument bears upon distinctions between an internationalist or “Third Worldist” outlook of solidarity that may appear to be “transnational,” when the deeper reality is that many forces have conspired to conserve and promote old borders and new nations, of the European nation-state mold. This problem is recently explored in Byrne, Jeffrey James, Mecca of Revolution: Algeria, Decolonization and the Third World Order (Oxford, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see especially his conclusion, 286–98. Byrne does not seek to engage the activism of the metropole for this era, but I explore it as in symbiosis, as vital to the core of his impressive and compelling argument.
105 See Pennybacker, “Anti-Apartheid Testimony,” 137.