Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-75dct Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-30T20:02:48.330Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Men of Parts: Masculine Embodiment and the Male Leg in Eighteenth-Century England

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 September 2015

Karen Harvey
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This essay explores changes in eighteenth-century male clothing in the context of the history of sexual difference, gender roles, and masculinity. The essay contributes to a history of dress by reconstructing a range of meanings and social practices through which men's clothing was understood by its consumers. Furthermore, critically engaging with work on the “great male renunciation,” the essay argues that the public authority that accrued to men through their clothing was based not on a new image of a rational disembodied man but instead on an emphasis on the male anatomy and masculinity as intrinsically embodied. Drawing on findings from the material objects of eighteenth-century clothing, visual representations, and evidence from the archival records of male consumers, the essay adopts an interdisciplinary approach that allows historians to study sex and gender as embodied, rather than simply performed. In so doing, the essay not only treats “embodiment” as an historical category but also responds to recent shifts in the historical discipline and the wider academy towards a more corporealist approach to the body.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 54 , Issue 4 , October 2015 , pp. 797 - 821
Copyright
Copyright © The North American Conference on British Studies 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Ulinka Rublack, Dressing Up Cultural Identity in Renaissance Europe (Oxford, 2010), 18.

2 Susan Vincent, Dressing the Elite: Clothes in Early Modern England (Oxford, 2003), 15–22; John Styles, The Dress of the People: Everyday Fashion in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven, 2007), 14–15. For breeches and trousers in the later period see, Anna Clark, Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (Berkeley, 1995), 71; Laura Ugolini, Men and Menswear: Sartorial Consumption in Britain, 1880–1939 (Aldershot, 2007), 23; Anne Hollander, Sex and Suits: The Evolution of Modern Dress (New York, 1994), 61–62. See Gayle V. Fischer, Pantaloons and Power: A Nineteenth-Century Dress Reform in the United States (Kent, OH, 2001) for challenges to male-only pantaloons.

3 Susan Vincent, “From the Cradle to the Grave: Clothing the Early Modern Body,” The Routledge History of Sex and the Body: 1500 to the Present, ed. Sarah Toulalan and Kate Fisher (Abingdon, 2013), 163–78, at 169.

4 Patricia Simons, The Sex of Men in Premodern Europe: A Cultural History (Cambridge, 2011), 13; McNeil, Peter and Riello, Giorgio, “The Art and Science of Walking: Gender, Space, and the Fashionable Body in the Long Eighteenth Century,” Fashion Theory 9, no. 2 (June 2005): 175–204, at 184CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the historic tightness of men's dress, see Tim Edwards, Men in the Mirror: Men's Fashion, Masculinity and Consumer Society (London, 1997), 16.

5 J. C. Flugel, The Psychology of Clothes (New York, 1930), 111, 208.

6 For a useful summary see Smith, Chloe Wigston, “Materializing the Eighteenth Century: Dress History, Literature, and Interdisciplinary Study,” Literature Compass 3, no. 5 (September 2006): 967–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 David Kuchta, The Three-Piece Suit and Modern Masculinity: England, 1550–1850 (Berkeley, 2002); idem, “The Making of the Self-Made Man: Class, Clothing and English Masculinity, 1688–1832,” in The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective, ed. Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough (Berkeley, 1996), 54–78. For a similar but earlier account of English and French men's clothing, see Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man (Cambridge, 1976), 64–72.

8 See Brent Shannon, The Cut of His Coat: Men, Dress and Consumer Culture in Britain, 1860–1914 (Athens, OH, 2006), 21–51.

9 Thomas A. King, The English Phallus, vol. 1, The Gendering of Men, 1600–1750 (Madison,  2004), 181.

10 For a review of some of this literature see Harvey, Karen, “A Century of Sex? Gender, Bodies and Sexuality in the Long Eighteenth Century,” Historical Journal 45, no. 4 (December 2002): 899–916CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Randolph Trumbach, Sex and the Gender Revolution, vol. 1, Heterosexuality and the Third Gender in Enlightenment London (Chicago, 1998); idem, “From Age to Gender, c. 1500–1750: From the Adolescent Male to the Adult Effeminate Body,” in Fisher and Toulalan, The Routledge History of Sex and the Body, 123–41.

12 Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, MA, 1990).

13 Wahrman, Dror, “Change and the Corporeal in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Gender History: Or, Can Cultural History Be Rigorous?,” Gender & History 20, no. 3 (November 2008): 584–602, at 599CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roper, Lyndal, “Beyond Discourse Theory,” Women's History Review 19, no. 2 (April 2010): 307–19, at 316CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the challenge to cultural history see Peter Burke, What Is Cultural History?, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, 2008), 114–17; Geoff Eley, A Crooked Line: From Cultural History to the History of Society (Ann Arbor, 2005). On the impact of constructionist approaches to sex, see Thomas Laqueur, “The Rise of Sex in the Eighteenth Century: Historical Context and Historiographical Implications,” in “Sex: A Thematic Issue,” ed. Michael McKeon, special issue, Signs 37, no. 4 (Summer 2012): 802–12, at 811CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 See, for example, Coward, Fiona and Gamble, Clive, “Big Brains, Small Worlds: Material Culture and the Evolution of the Mind,” in “The Sapient Mind: Archaeology Meets Neuroscience,” ed. Colin Renfrew, Chris Frith, and Lambros Malafouris, special issue, Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 363, no. 1499 (June 2008): 1969–79CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr, Embodiment and Cognitive Science (Cambridge, 2006); Tim Ingold, The Perception of the Environment: Essays in Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill (Oxford, 2000); idem, “Bindings against Boundaries: Entanglements of Life in an Open World,” Environment and Planning 40, no. 8 (August 2008): 1796–1810CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Such work has also been challenged, though. See, for example, Lisa Blackman, Immaterial Bodies: Affect, Embodiment, Mediation (Los Angeles, 2012). Two examples of early modern British historians who have drawn on this work are Jenner, Mark, “Follow Your Nose? Smell, Smelling, and Their Histories,” American Historical Review 116, no. 2 (April 2011): 335–51CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, and Smith, Kate, “Sensing Design and Workmanship: The Haptic Skills of Shoppers in Eighteenth-Century London,” Journal of Design History 25, no. 1 (January 2012): 1–10CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

15 Laqueur, Making Sex, 8, 207.

16 See, for example, Churchill, Wendy D., “The Medical Practice of the Sexed Body: Women, Men, and Disease in Britain, circa 1600–1740,” Social History of Medicine 18, no. 1 (April 2005): 3–22CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Laura Gowing, “Women's Bodies and the Making of Sex in Seventeenth-Century England,” in “Sex: A Thematic Issue,” ed. Michael McKeon, special issue, Signs 37, no. 4 (Summer 2012): 813–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On clothing and the body, see Paul R. Deslandes, “Exposing, Adorning, and Dressing the Body in the Modern Era,” in Fisher and Toulalan, The Routledge History of Sex and the Body, 179–203, at 180; Wendy Parkins, “Introduction: (Ad)dressing Citizens,” Fashioning the Body Politic: Dress, Gender, Citizenship (Oxford, 2002), 1–17, at 2. Influential works of feminist philosophy on sex and the body include Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (London, 1990); eadem, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York, 1993); Elizabeth Grosz, Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporal Feminism (Bloomington, 1994). See also Nick J. Fox, Beyond Health: Postmodernism and Embodiment (London, 1999).

17 Laura Gowing, Common Bodies: Women, Sex and Reproduction in Seventeenth-Century England (New Haven, 2003), 4.

18 On the importance of studying the intersection of culture and practice in the history of masculinity, see Karen Harvey and Alexandra Shepard, “What Have Historians Done with Masculinity? Reflections on Five Centuries of British History, circa 1500–1950,” in “Special Feature on Masculinities,” special feature, Journal of British Studies 44, no. 2 (April 2005): 274–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Karen Harvey, The Little Republic: Masculinity and Domestic Authority in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Oxford, 2012), 14–15; eadem, “Oeconomy and the Eighteenth-Century ‘House’: A Cultural History of Social Practice,” in “Domestic Practice in the Past: Historical Sources and Methods,” ed. Michael McKeon, special issue, Home Cultures 11, no. 3 (November 2014): 375–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Such collections are not representative of historic clothing; nevertheless all the items of legwear from the relevant dates in each collection were surveyed for the research, an indicative sample of which is discussed here.

20 Beverly Lemire, The Business of Everyday Life: Gender, Practice and Social Politics in England, c.1600–1900 (Manchester, 2005), 119–20.

21 Shammas, Carole, “The Decline of Textile Prices in England and British America Prior to Industrialization,” Economic History Review 2nd ser., 47, no. 3 (August 1994): 483–507, at 492CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lemire, Business of Everyday Life, 115.

22 Styles, Dress of the People, 90.

23 S. D. Chapman, The Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution (Basingstoke, 1972), 60.

24 On William Lee, see Joan Thirsk, “The Fantastical Folly of Fashion: The English Stocking Knitting Industry, 1500–1700,” in Textile History and Economic History: Essays in Honour of Miss Julia de Lacy Mann, ed. N. B. Harte and K. G. Ponting (Manchester, 1973), 50–73, at 68–70; Chapman, Cotton Industry, 14.

25 Chapman, Cotton Industry, 14.

26 Styles, Dress of the People, 88.

27 Ibid., 337, Table 5.

28 Lemire, Business of Everyday Life, 126.

29 Ibid., 127, 134.

30 Claire Bartram, “Social Fabric in Thynne's Debate Between Pride and Lowliness,” in Clothing Culture: 1350–1650, ed. Catherine Richardson (Aldershot, 2004), 137–49.

31 Styles, Dress of the People, 338, 40; McNeil and Riello, “Art and Science of Walking,” 185.

32 Amanda Vickery, “Women and the World of Goods: A Lancashire Consumer and Her Possessions, 1751–81,” in Consumption and the World of Goods: Consumption and Society in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London, 1993), 274–301.

33 Daniel Baker to his parents, 24 March 1706, D/X 1069/2/23, Centre for Buckinghamshire Studies.

34 Account and memo book of George Newton, late eighteenth century, TR753, Sheffield Archives, fols.1, 3.

35 Ibid., fol. 6.

36 Ibid., fol. 7.

37 Ibid., fol. 197.

38 Accounts of Richard Brooke with John Elam for 2 December 1815, DNB/C/15E/134 1815, Cheshire and Chester Archives.

39 See for example, Green silk breeches with linen lining, 1760–1770, Bath Museum of Fashion, II.24.2B; Breeches, silk with linen lining and velvet, late eighteenth century, Manchester Gallery of Costume (Platt Hall), 1949.72.

40 Breeches, black twilled silk with linen, second half of eighteenth century, Manchester Gallery of Costume (Platt Hall), 1954.1107. See also the repairs to pantaloons, knitted silk, ca. 1820, Victoria and Albert Museum, T683A–1913.

41 Robert Sharp to William Sharp, 11 July 1825, in The Diary of Robert Sharp of South Cave: Life in a Yorkshire Village 1812–1837, ed. Janet Crowther and Peter Crowther (Oxford, 1997), 23; Robert Sharp to William Sharp, 17 October 1827, ibid., 166.

42 Account and memo book of George Newton, fol. 61.

43 Thomas Lister, 1st Baron Ribblesdale, to David Kaye (steward?), 24 January 1786, MD335/1/8/4/19, Yorkshire Archaeological Trust.

44 Fiore to Frederick Robinson Newby at Thirsk, 8 September 1789, L 30/15/19/5, Bedfordshire and Luton Archives and Record Service.

45 Copy of a letter from Mr Francis Bull of Daventry to Mr Samuel Palmer, on receiving a present of old Clothes, n.d., CR 147/33, Cheshire and Chester Archives.

46 Rublack, Dressing Up, 19. See Ugolini, Men and Menswear, 24, 32, for the continuation of this practice into the twentieth century.

47 Styles, Dress of the People, 65.

48 Rublack, Dressing Up, 19; Styles, Dress of the People, 63–69.

49 Copy of a letter from Mr Francis Bull of Daventry to Mr Samuel Palmer, CR 147/33, Cheshire and Chester Archives.

50 William Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty. Written with a view of fixing the fluctuating Ideas of Taste (London, 1753), 56.

51 Ibid., 61. On the male beauty and aesthetics more broadly, see Alex Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History (New Haven, 1994).

52 See also Richardson, Annie, “An Aesthetics of Performance: Dance in Hogarth's ‘Analysis of Beauty,’” Dance Research: The Journal of the Society for Dance Research 20, no. 2 (Winter 2002): 38–87Google Scholar.

53 McCormack, Matthew, “Dance and Drill: Polite Accomplishments and Military Masculinities in Georgian Britain,” Cultural and Social History 8, no. 3 (September 2011): 315–30, at 321CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 Kellom Tomlinson, The Art of Dancing Explained by Reading and Figures; Whereby the Manner of Performing the Steps is Made Easy by a New and Familiar Method, 2nd ed. (London, 1724), 26.

55 McNeil and Riello, “Art and Science of Walking,” 195; Karen Harvey, Reading Sex in the Eighteenth Century: Bodies and Gender in English Erotic Culture (Cambridge, 2004), 175–98.

56 See Rhonda K. Garelick, Rising Star: Dandyism, Gender, and Performance in the Fin de Siècle (Princeton, 1999); Susan Vincent, The Anatomy of Fashion: Dressing the Body from the Renaissance to Today (Oxford, 2009), 116.

57 Stephen Conway, “Tarleton, Sir Banastre, baronet (1754–1833),” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford, 2004); online ed., http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/26970, accessed 10 July 2015.

58 London Packet; or, New Lloyd's Evening Post, 25 January 1782; London Courant, Noon Gazette, and Daily Advertiser, 28 January 1782. All newspapers accessed via Eighteenth-Century Collections Online, 17 July 2014.

59 Kathleen Wilson, “Empire of Virtue: The Imperial Project and Hanoverian culture, c.1720–1785,” in An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815, ed. Lawrence Stone (Abingdon, 1994), 128–64, at 150.

60 Bonehill, John, “Reynolds' Portrait of Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton and the Fashion for War,” Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 24, no. 2 (September 2001): 123–44, at 125CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

61 Miller, William Ian, “Weak Legs: Misbehaviour before the Enemy,” Representations 70 (Spring 2000): 27–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Aaron Crossly, The Signification of most Things that are born in Heraldry (Dublin, 1724), 50. See Bonehill, “Reynolds' Portrait of Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton” on the ambivalence of the painting.

62 Dziennik, Matthew P., “Whig Tartan: Material Culture and Its Use in the Scottish Highlands, 1746–1815,” Past & Present 217, no. 1 (November 2012): 117–47, at 118CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Leask, Ian, “Sex on (Bare) Legs? ‘Thomas Lee’ and ‘Irishness,’” Irish Review 42 (July 2010): 72–84Google Scholar.

63 Vincent, Anatomy of Fashion, 55. See also Martin Myrone, Bodybuilding: Reforming Masculinities in British Art 1750–1810 (London, 2006).

64 John Harvey, Men in Black (Chicago, 1995), 128; Lemire, Business of Everyday Life, 123.

65 Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Madison, 1989), 58.

66 George Newberry, “Representations of ‘Race’ in British Science and Culture during the Eighteenth Century” (PhD diss., University of Sheffield, 2012).

67 Irene Fizer, “The Fur Parasol: Masculine Dress, Prosthetic Skins, and the Making of the English Umbrella in Robinson Crusoe,” in Eighteenth-Century Thing Theory in a Global Context: From Consumerism to Celebrity Culture, ed. Ileana Baird and Christina Ionescu (Farnham, 2013), 209–26, at 216.

68 Christopher E. Forth and Ivan Crozier, eds., Body Parts: Critical Explorations in Corporeality (Lanham, 2005), 5.

69 Fend, Mechthild, “Bodily and Pictorial Surfaces: Skin in French Art and Medicine, 1790–1860,” Art History 28, no. 3 (June 2005): 311–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 Hollander, Sex and Suits, 84–88, at 86.

71 Downing, Karen, “The Gentleman Boxer: Boxing, Manners, and Masculinity in Eighteenth-Century England,” Men and Masculinities 12, no. 3 (January 2010): 328–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 See The Breeches; or, The Country Curate and Cobler's Wife. A Comic, Satiric, Poetic, Descriptive Tale (London, 1786), 7; John Hope, Occasional Attempts at Sentimental Poetry, by a Man in Business (London, 1769), 151.

73 Parkes, Simon, “Wooden Legs and Tales of Sorrow Done: The Literary Broken Soldier of the Late Eighteenth Century,” Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 36, no. 2 (June 2013): 191–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Turner, David, “Disability and Crime in Eighteenth-Century England: Physical Impairment at the Old Bailey,” Cultural and Social History 9, no. 1 (March 2012): 47–64, at 50–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 Hollander, Sex and Suits, 88. John Chute hid his legs in a chair and domino when he had gout. See Claro, Daniel, “Historicizing Masculine Appearance: John Chute and the Suits at The Vyne, 1740–76,” Fashion Theory 9, no. 2 (June 2005): 147–74, at 161CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

76 Matthew Towle, The Young Gentleman and Lady's Private Tutor (London, 1770), 14.

77 “An Allegory of Leicester House,” The Memoirs and Speeches of James, 2nd Earl Waldegrave, 1742–1763, ed. J. C. D. Clark (Cambridge, 1988), 229. Thanks to Richard Connors for this reference.

78 Hogarth, Analysis of Beauty, 80.

79 Discussed in McNeil and Riello, “Art and Science of Walking,” 182.

80 Harvey, Reading Sex, 124–45; Shannon, Cut of his Coat, 83–84.

81 William Hutton, The Life of William Hutton, F. A. S. S. (London, 1816), 26–27, quoted in Styles, Dress of the People, 58.

82 Trumbach, Sex and the Gender Revolution, 90–98, at 90.

83 Account and memo book of George Newton, fols. 61, 64,

84 Ibid., fol. 64.

85 Styles, Dress of the People, 59–60.

86 Lynn Sorge-English, Stays and Body Image in London: The Staymaking Trade, 1680–1810 (London, 2011), 181–212.

87 Claro, “Historicizing Masculine Appearance,” 156.

88 See Buckskin pantaloons, 1776–1800, Museum of London, 39.5/27.

89 Buckskin breeches, 1801–1825, Museum of London, 37.5.

90 Daniel Miller, “Introduction,” in Clothing as Material Culture, ed. Susanne Küchler and Daniel Miller (Oxford, 2005), 1–19, at 3; Kaori O'Connor, “The Other Half: The Material Culture of New Fibres,” in ibid., 41–60; Sophie Woodward, “Looking Good: Feeling Right—Aesthetics of the Self,” in ibid., 21–40; Alexandra Warwick and Dani Cavallaro, Fashioning the Frame: Boundaries, Dress and the Body (Oxford, 1998), 4.

91 Compare, for example, Ann Rosalind Jones and Peter Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory (Cambridge, 2000), 2, and Dror Wahrman, The Making of the Modern Self: Identity and Culture in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven, 2004), 178–79. On the changing relationship between people and things see Matthew Johnson, An Archaeology of Capitalism (Oxford, 1996), 190, 7–8.

92 Linzy Brekke, “‘To Make a Figure”: Clothing and the Politics of Male Identity Eighteenth-Century America,” in Gender, Taste, and Material Culture in Britain and North America, 1700–1830, ed. Amanda Vickery and John Styles (New Haven, 2006), 225–46, at 244; McCormack, “Dance and Drill,” 323.

93 Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class 1780–1850 (London, 1987), 412.

94 Christopher Breward, “Manliness, Modernity and the Shaping of Male Clothing,” in Body Dressing (Dress, Body, Culture), ed. Joanne Entwhistle and Elizabeth Wilson (Oxford, 2001), 165–81, at 165; Alison Bashford, Purity and Pollution: Gender, Embodiment and Victorian Medicine (Basingstoke, 1998), xvi.

95 Laqueur, Making Sex, 216.

96 Hollander, Sex and Suits, 88.

97 John Cleland, Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure (London, 1749), 186.

98 Ibid., 188.

99 Harvey, Reading Sex, 129; see also 124–45.

100 Ibid., 35–77.

101 Laurence Sterne, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (London, 1767), 4:134, 133. Thanks to Markman Ellis for this reference. For an account of this episode see Norton, Brian Michael, “Tristram Shandy and the Limits of Stoic Ethics,” Eighteenth-Century Fiction 18, no. 4 (June 2006): 405–23, at 408, 413CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

102 See McNeil and Riello, “Art and Science of Walking,” 192.

103 Hollander, Sex and Suits, 88.

104 Berry, Helen, “Queering the History of Marriage: The Social Recognition of a Castrato Husband in Eighteenth-Century Britain,” History Workshop Journal 74, no. 1 (Autumn 2012): 27–50, at 30–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McCormack, “Dance and Drill,” 318.

105 Hitchcock, Tim, “Redefining Sex in Eighteenth-Century England,” History Workshop Journal 41, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 73–90Google Scholar.

106 A Spy on Mother Midnight: or, the Templar Metamorphos'd. Being a Lying-in Conversation (London, 1748), 20–21.

107 C. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, The History of Underclothes (New York, 1992), 80–82.

108 Harvey, Reading Sex, 138–39. For women, dress, and aging, see Vickery, Amanda, “Mutton Dressed as Lamb? Fashioning Age in Georgian England,” Journal of British Studies 52, no. 4 (October 2013): 858–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 “Receipt for making the Limbs thick & strong,” 1727, “Medical recipes and prescriptions,” 1647–1850, in Papers of the Clerk family of Penicuik, Midlothian GD18/2125/31, The National Archives of Scotland. Thanks to Alison Montgomery for this reference.

110 Ibid.

111 Crossly, Signification of most Things that are born in Heraldry, 50.

112 M. de La Beaumelle [Laurent Angliviel], Reflections of ***** being a Series of Political Maxims (London, 1753), 169.

113 Anne Hollander, Seeing through Clothes (Berkeley, 1993), 311.

114 Leys, Ruth, “The Turn to Affect: A Critique,” Critical Inquiry 37, no. 3 (Spring 2011): 434–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

115 Erin Mackie, Market à la Mode: Fashion, Commodity, and Gender in The Tatler and The Spectator (Baltimore, 1997), 190.

116 Grosz, Volatile Bodies, 198.

117 Harvey, Men in Black, 14.

118 Michael Zakim, Ready-Made Democracy: A History of Men's Dress in the American Republic, 1760–1860 (Chicago, 2005); Jenna Weissman Joselit, A Perfect Fit: Clothes, Character, and the Promise of America (New York, 2001), 2; Daniel Roche, The Culture of Clothing: Dress and Fashion in the “Ancien Régime,” trans. Jean Birrell (Cambridge, 1994), 464; Kuchta, “Making of the Self-Made Man,” 65.

119 “Embodied citizenship” as used in contemporary political theory refers to the ways in which the material body affects the citizenship status of political subjects. See, for example, Bacchi, Carol Lee and Beasley, Chris, “Citizen Bodies: Is Embodied Citizenship a Contradiction in Terms?” Critical Social Policy 22, no. 2 (May 2002): 324–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Titchkosky, Tanya, “Governing Embodiment: Technologies of Constituting Citizens with Disabilities,” Canadian Journal of Sociology / Cahiers Canadiens de Sociologie 28, no. 4 (Fall 2003): 517–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.