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Internal Movement Transformation and the Diffusion of Student Protest in Chile

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 November 2016

INDIRA PALACIOS-VALLADARES
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Abstract

This article seeks to understand the impressive scale of recent student protests in Chile. It underscores how relative institutional closure to student demands created, in the late 1990s and early 2000s, a growing cleavage between the movement and the political establishment, leading to major innovations in movement identity and organisation. These innovations rendered the movement more attractive to non-activists, helping in later years to diffuse contention from traditional hotbeds of student activism to schools and universities with little history of it.

Spanish abstract

El presente artículo busca explicar la excepcional magnitud de las recientes protestas estudiantiles en Chile. El análisis demuestra cómo el relativo cierre de las instituciones políticas a las demandas estudiantiles generó a fines de la década de los 90 y principios de los 2000 una escisión entre el movimiento y la clase política, contribuyendo a la creación de importantes innovaciones en la identidad y formas de organización del primero. Dichas innovaciones hicieron el movimiento más atractivo a estudiantes no militantes, contribuyendo así a difundir la protesta desde escuelas y universidades con una larga historia de activismo estudiantil hacia instituciones sin dicha tradición.

Portuguese abstract

Este artigo busca compreender a dimensão excepcional dos protestos estudantis recentes no Chile. Enfatiza-se como o relativo fechamento institucional às demandas estudantis criou, no final da década de 1990 e início da década de 2000, uma crescente cisão entre o movimento estudantil e a classe política, favorecendo importantes inovações na identidade e organização do movimento. Estas inovações tornaram o movimento mais atrativo a estudantes não militantes, contribuindo posteriormente para difundir a prática contestativa de universidades com conhecido histórico ativista para outras sem um histórico tão marcante.

Keywords

Chilestudentssocial movementsdiffusionChileestudiantesmovimientos socialesdifusiónChileestudantesmovimentos sociaisdifusão
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Latin American Studies , Volume 49 , Issue 3 , August 2017 , pp. 579 - 607
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Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

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References

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2 The Concertación lasted from 1988 to 2013. The major parties involved were the Socialist Party, the Christian Democratic Party and the Party for Democracy.

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7 Protest cycles are episodes of heightened conflict, involving the expansion, intensification and acceleration of mobilisation across the political system. See Tarrow, Sidney, Power in Movement (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 153 Google Scholar.

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10 Sarah Soule, ‘Diffusion Processes’, pp. 302–3.

11 Ibid ., p. 302. See also Strange, David and Meyer, John ‘Institutional Conditions for Diffusion’, Theory and Society, 22 (1993), pp. 487–511 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McAdam and Rucht, ‘The Cross-National Diffusion of Movement Ideas’, pp. 56–74; Snow, David and Benford, Robert, ‘Alternative Types of Cross-National Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena’, in Kriesi, Hanspeter, Porta, Donatella della and Rucht, Dieter (eds.), Social Movements in a Globalizing World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), pp. 23–39 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Donatella della Porta, ‘Learning Democracy: Cross-time Adaptation in Organisational Repertoires’, in Della Porta and Mattoni, Spreading Protest, p. 45.

12 Although the emphasis here is on the diffusion literature, the empirical arguments also underscore the value of the literature on collective identity in social movements. For excellent reviews, see Polleta, Francesca and Jasper, James, ‘Collective Identity and Social Movements’, Annual Review of Sociology, 27 (2001), pp. 283–305 CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Scott Hunt and Robert Benford, ‘Collective Identity, Solidarity and Commitment’, in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, pp. 433–57.

13 McAdam, Doug, ‘Tactical Innovation and the Pace of Insurgency’, American Sociological Review, 48: 6 (1983), pp. 735–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sidney Tarrow, ‘Dynamics of Diffusion: Mechanisms, Institutions and Scale Shift’, in Givan et al., The Diffusion of Social Movements, pp. 212–14.

14 McAdam, Doug, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, 1982)Google Scholar; Givan et al., ‘The Dimensions of Diffusion’, p. 9; Della Porta, ‘Learning Democracy’, p. 45.

15 I use ‘generation’ in a sociological sense to refer to an age cohort whose identity has been shaped by public events, problems or trends that occurred during their youth. See Mannheim, Karl, ‘The Problem of Generations’, in Kecskemeti, Paul (ed.), Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge: Collected Works (New York: Routledge, 1968), pp. 276–322 Google Scholar.

16 The concept of threat refers to changes that appear to endanger movement interests, while opportunity refers to situations that increase the costs of state repression or create political openings for movements to achieve their goals. See Tilly, Charles, From Mobilisation to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978), p. 55 Google Scholar.

17 Centros de estudiantes are legally recognised, elected student government bodies. At the secondary level there is a centro for each school. University centros are organised by academic discipline. Secondary student federations bring together centros at the regional and national levels, while university federations organise the centros of a particular institution. Confederations represent several different federations.

18 The Duncan Index, a measure of educational inequality where 0 equals total equality and 1 total inequality, barely changed, moving from 0.32 in 1992 to 0.31 in 2002. See José Valenzuela, Evolución de la segregación económica de los estudiantes chilenos y su relación con el financiamiento compartido (FONIDE 211-2006, 2008), pp. 4, 14.

19 Ibid ., pp. 15–6.

20 Moraga, Fabio, ‘Crisis y recomposición del movimiento estudiantil chileno (1990–2001)’, in Marsiske, Renata (ed.), Movimientos estudiantiles en la historia de América Latina, vol. 3 (México DF: UNAM, 2006), p. 194 Google Scholar; Muñoz, Víctor, Generaciones: juventud universitaria e izquierdas políticas en Chile y México (Santiago: LOM, 2011), p. 127 Google Scholar.

21 Ibid .

22 Interview with Rodrigo Roco, FECH president and CONFECH representative 1996, Communist Party activist, 8 Aug. 2013; de Arce, Marcela Pérez, ‘Gobierno, gestión y participación en las universidades estatales: un mapa de actores’, in Persisco, Pablo (ed.), Informe sobre la educación superior en Chile (Santiago: Corporación de Promoción Universitaria, 1999), pp. 205–6Google Scholar.

23 Interview with Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013.

24 Comisión de Financiamiento Estudiantil para la Educación Superior, Análisis y recomendaciones para el sistema de financiamiento estudiantil, Ministerio de Educación (2012), p. 95.

25 Ministerio de Educación, Informe Fondo Solidario de Crédito Universitario 1994–2010 (2011), p. 38.

26 Ibid ., p. 12.

27 Domedel, Andrea and y Lillo, Macarena Peña, El mayo de los Pingüinos (Santiago: Radio Universidad de Chile, 2008), p. 47 Google Scholar.

28 Interview with Víctor Orellana, President Centro Liceo de Aplicación (CAIN), 1999, CREA activist; representative FECH and CONFECH 2005, Izquierda Autónoma activist, 5 Aug. 2013.

29 Observatorio Social de América Latina, Cronologías del conflicto social, available at http://biblioteca.clacso.edu.ar/.

30 Apuntes para una historia del movimiento estudiantil entre 2000 y 2010, available at http://talleresparalaaccion.wordpress.com/; Patricio Lagos, La organización estudiantil, 2006, pp. 2, 3, available at http://www.fortinmapocho.com/detalle.asp?iPro=881.

31 Muñoz, Generaciones, pp. 232–41; Cárdenas and Navarro, El movimiento estudiantil, pp. 21–2; Meza, Alexis, ‘Un tropezón no es caída: historia del movimiento estudiantil en la Universidad de Concepción (1990–2000)’, in Historia sociopolítica del Concepción contemporáneo: memoria, identidad y territorio (Santiago: Escaparate, 2006) p. 11 Google Scholar; Lagos, La organización estudiantil.

32 Interview with Ivan Mlynarz, FECH president, 1999 and representative CONFECH, Communist Party activist, 6 Aug. 2013; interviews with Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013, Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013 and Diego Sáez, 1999–2002 president Student Federation of the Austral University and representative CONFECH, 1999–2002, SurDa activist, 27 Nov. 2013.

33 Muñoz, Victor, ‘Movimiento social juvenil y eje cultural: dos contextos de reconstrucción organizativa (1976–1982/1989–2002)’, Última Década, 10: 17 (2002), pp. 41–64 Google Scholar; Orellana, Apuntes, p. 3.

34 Interview with Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013.

35 Interview with Ivan Mlynarz, 6 Aug. 2013.

36 Interview with Diego Sáez, 27 Nov. 2013.

37 Muñoz, Generaciones, pp. 219–21; Orellana, Apuntes, pp. 9–10; Roco, Rodrigo, ‘La FECH de fines de los 90: relatos de una historia presente’, Anales de la Universidad de Chile, 6: 17 (2005), pp. 54 Google Scholar.

38 Interview with Ivan Mlynarz, 6 Aug. 2013; interviews with Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013 and Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013.

39 Meza, ‘Un tropezón no es caída’, pp. 214–27; Muñoz, Generaciones, pp. 232–41; Roco, ‘La FECH de fines de los 90’, p. 56.

40 Interview with Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013.

41 Interview with Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013.

42 Interviews with Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013 and Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013.

43 Muñoz, Generaciones, pp. 220–2; interviews with Ivan Mlynarz, 6 Aug. 2013 and Jonathan Serracino, president Student Federation Universidad Alberto Hurtado (FEUAH) 2006–09 and representative Confederation of Students of Private Universities (CONFESUP) 2006, Nueva Izquierda activist, 15 Nov. 2013.

44 Claudia Rivas and Alejandra Carmona ‘Solidaridad: el Tea Party que amenaza el poder de la UDI en su cuna’, El Mostrador, 8 Nov. 2012; Muñoz, Generaciones, p. 228; interviews with Ivan Mlynarz, 6 Aug. 2013, Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013 and Pedro Glatz, vice-president, Student Federation Catholic University of Chile (FEUC) 2011, Nueva Acción Universitaria (NAU) activist), 7 Aug 2013, and Sebastián Vielmas, 2011 secretary general FEUC, 2011, NAU activist, 7 Aug. 2013.

45 Meza, ‘Un tropezón no es caída’, pp. 214–27; Muñoz, Generaciones, pp. 229–32; Orellana, Apuntes, pp. 8–11; Nicolás Grau and Francisco Melo, ‘FECH 2004–2006: movilización, propuestas y reorganización del movimiento estudiantil, unpubl. manuscript; interviews with Nicolás Grau, president FECH, 2006 and representative CONFECH, Nueva Izquierda activist, 4 July 2013; Felipe Melo, 2005 president FECH 2004 and representative CONFECH, Nueva Izquierda activist, 13 Nov. 2013, Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013 and Bryan Seguel, representative FECH, 2010, Federación de Estudiantes Libertarios (FEL) activist, 17 June 2013.

46 Interviews with Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013, Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013, and Diego Sáez, 27 Nov. 2013.

47 For an example of how this process played out at the University of Chile see Muñoz, Generaciones, pp. 222–4.

48 Interviews with Ivan Mlynarz, 6 Aug. 2013, Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013, Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013 and Diego Sáez, 27 Nov. 2016.

49 Interview with Rodrigo Roco, 8 Aug. 2013.

50 Muñoz, Generaciones, p. 124; interview with Ivan Mlynarz, 6 Aug. 2013.

51 Interview with Jonathan Serracino, 15 Nov. 2013.

52 Ibid .

53 Interview with Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug 2013.

54 Ibid .

55 Interviews with Eloisa González, spokesperson, Coordinating Assemblies of Secondary Students (ACES), 2011, Juventud Rebelde, 26 June 2013; María Huerta, spokesperson Secondary Student Assemblies (AES), 2006, independent, 19 June 2012, and Bryan Seguel, 17 June 2012.

56 Although widely used in the study of protest, news coverage has its limitations, including bias in the selection of events to be covered and the content of coverage, as well as omissions and errors in reporting. To limit these problems, I use a variety of sources. For 1990–99 I compiled the data myself from El Mercurio, La Tercera, La Época, La Nación and El Fortín Mapocho. These sources are circulated nationally and represent a wide spectrum of political views. For 2000–11 I relied on OSAL, Cronologías del conflicto social. OSAL draws from El Mercurio, La Nación and La Tercera, as well as radio podcasts and news magazines, such as El Siglo and Punto Final, and El Fortín Mapocho. It does not use La Época, which closed down in 1998.

57 In other words, if an individual participated in such events on five different days in a given year she/he was counted five times.

58 Kubal, ‘Challenging the Consensus’, pp. 117–35; Lustig et al., ‘Basta ya!’, pp. 223–31; Scherman et al., ‘La protesta en la era de las redes sociales’, 179–97; Donoso, ‘Dynamics of Change’, pp. 1–29.

59 Grau and Melo, ‘La FECH 2004–2006’.

60 Institutos profesionales are educational institutions that offer two-year degree courses.

61 Grau and Melo, ‘La FECH 2004–2006’; interview with Felipe Melo, 13 Nov. 2013.

62 Interview with Jonathan Serracino, 15 Nov. 2013; available at http://noticias.universia.cl/vida-universitaria/noticia/2005/09/07/337943/reglamento-nuevo-credito-educacion-superior-esta-fase-final.html.

63 Interview with Jonathan Serracino, 15 Nov. 2013; Universia, ‘Reglamento de nuevo crédito’.

64 Interview with Nicolás Grau, 4 July 2013.

65 Ibid .

66 Banco Mundial, Programa de Crédito con Aval de Estado en Chile (2011), p. 22.

67 Ibid ., p. 49.

68 Ibid ., p. 46.

69 Kubal, ‘Challenging the Consensus’, pp. 119–25; Donoso, ‘Dynamics of Change’, pp. 18–23.

70 Ibid ., p. 8.

71 Interview with María Huerta, 19 June 2012.

72 Donoso, ‘Dynamics of Change’, pp. 20–3.

73 Interview with María Huerta, 19 June 2012. See Bachelet's 2006 educational proposals, available at http://historiapolitica.bcn.cl/mensajes_presidenciales 19 June 2013.

74 Interview with María Huerta, 19 June 2012.

75 Donoso, ‘Dynamics of Change’, p. 9.

76 Domedel and Peña y Lillo, El mayo de los Pingüinos; interviews with Simón Ramírez, spokesperson College of Social Sciences Catholic University of Chile, 2011, FEL activist, 20 June 2012 and Bryan Seguel, 17 June 2012.

77 OSAL 2006, p. 13; ‘Siga minuto a minuto el paro nacional de los estudiantes’, available at http://www.emol.com/noticias/nacional/2006/05/30/220617/siga-minuto-a-minuto-el-paro-nacional-de-los-estudiantes.html.

78 Interview with Nicolás Grau, 4 July 2013.

79 Interview with Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

80 Jackson, Giorgio, El país que soñamos (Santiago: Random House, 2013), p. 56 Google Scholar.

81 Ibid ., p. 57.

82 Document available at http://www.revistadocencia.cl/pdf/20100730201333.pdf.

83 Interviews with Pedro Glatz, 7 Aug. 2013, and Matías Schmidt, NAU activist, 2011, 17 July 2013 and Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

84 Interview with Pedro Glatz, 7 Aug. 2013.

85 Federación de Estudiantes Libertarios, Pontificia Universidad Católica, ‘Piñera y Lavín. Por qué la “reforma” en educación vale hongo?’, available at https://felpuc.wordpress.com/documentos/mas-antiguas/2010-2/pinera-y-lavin-por-que-la-reforma-en-educacion-superior-vale-hongo/; Jackson, El país que soñamos, pp. 58–60; Vallejo, Camila, Podemos cambiar el mundo (Mexico DF: Ocean Sur, 2012), pp. 68–72 Google Scholar; Figueroa, Francisco, Llegamos para quedarnos (Santiago: LOM, 2013), p. 22 Google Scholar; interview with Camilo Ballesteros, president Student Federation of the University of Santiago 2011 and representative CONFECH, Communist Party activist, 9 July 2013.

86 Interviews with Beatriz Vega, president Centro de Estudiantes Ciencias Políticas Catholic University, 2010, NAU activist, 10 July 2013 and Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

87 Interviews with Pedro Glatz, 7 Aug. 2013, Matías Schmidt, 17 July 2013 and Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

88 Simonsen, Elizabeth, Mala educación: historia de la revolución escolar (Santiago: Random House, 2012)Google Scholar.

89 Documents available at http://www.cooperativa.cl/noticias/pais/educacion/proyectos/conozca-el-documento-que-entregaron-los-estudiantes-al-ministro-bulnes/2011-07-28/001022.html.

90 Scherman et al., ‘La protesta en la era de las redes sociales’, pp. 179–97.

91 Interview with Bryan Seguel, 17 June 2012.

92 Figueroa, Llegamos para quedarnos, pp. 133–8; Jackson, El país que soñamos, pp. 82–7.

93 Figueroa, Llegamos para quedarnos, pp. 119–23; Jackson, El país que soñamos, pp. 99–107; Simonsen, Mala educación, pp. 111–2.

94 Interviews with Pedro Glatz, 7 Aug. 2013 and Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

95 Interview with Francisco Sainz, president FEUAH, 2013, FEL activist, 11 July 2013.

96 Interview with Daniela López, president Centro de Estudiantes Universidad Central, 2011–12, Izquierda Autónoma activist, 19 June 2013.

97 Interview with Bryan Seguel, 17 June 2012.

98 Domedel and Peña y Lillo, El mayo de los Pingüinos, pp. 65–96, German Bidegain, ‘Leading the Social Movement: Competing Organisational Dynamics and Leadership in the 2011 Chilean Student Movement’, (manuscript).

99 Domedel and Peña y Lillo, El mayo de los Pingüinos, pp. 65–96; Von Bülow, Marisa and Bidegain, German, ‘It Takes Two to Tango: Students, Political Parties and Protest in Chile (2005–2013)’, in Almeida, Paul and Cordero, Allen (eds.), Handbook of Social Movements Across Latin America (New York: Springer, 2015), pp. 179–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

100 Grau and Melo, ‘La FECH 2004–2006’; Figueroa, Llegamos para quedarnos, p. 102.

101 Interview with Víctor Orellana, 5 Aug. 2013.

102 Interviews with María Huerta, 19 June 2012, Bryan Seguel, 17 June 2012 and Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

103 Interview with César Valenzuela, president centro Liceo de Aplicación and spokesperson AES, 2006, Socialist Party activist, 13 June 2012.

104 Interview with César Valenzuela, 13 June 2012 and Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

105 Interview with María Huerta, 19 June 2012.

106 ADESUP, Minutes 8 June of 2006 and Estructura y Funciones del Movimiento, 12 June 2006.

107 Simonsen, Mala Educación; interviews with Eloisa González, 26 June 2013, Simón Ramírez, 20 June 2012, Bryan Seguel, 17 June 2012 and Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

108 Interviews with Gabriel González, president Centro de Estudiantes Instituto Nacional (CAIN), 2012 and representative National Coordination of Secondary Students (CONES), independent, 25 June 2013 and José Soto, president CAIN, 2011 and representative, CONES, independent, 9 Aug. 2013.

109 German Bidegain, ‘Leading the Social Movement’; Figueroa, Llegamos para quedarnos, pp. 99–108.

110 Interview with Simón Ramírez, 20 June 2012.

111 Alexei Barrionuevo, ‘With Kiss-ins and Dances, Young Chileans Push for Reform’, New York Times, 4 Aug. 2011; El Mostrador, ‘Yodebo.cl, el sitio web donde estudiantes publican su deuda’, 13 June 2011.

112 At the height of protest the movement enjoyed the support of roughly 70 per cent of the population, available at http://www.adimark.cl/es/estudios/documentos/08_ev_gob_agos_2011.pdf.

113 Interview with Sebastián Vielmas, 7 Aug. 2013.

114 Rojas, Sociedad bloqueada; Garcés, Mario, El despertar de la sociedad (Santiago: LOM, 2012)Google Scholar, Mayol, Alberto, No al lucro: de la crisis del modelo a la nueva era política (Santiago: Debate, 2013)Google Scholar; Cárdenas and Navarro, El movimiento estudiantil.

115 Touraine, Alain, The Self-Production of Society (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, 1977)Google Scholar; Melucci, Alberto, Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University, 1989)Google Scholar.

116 The latter was passed as a budgetary measure for 2016 but the Nueva Mayoría is seeking to make it permanent.