Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-x24gv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-16T01:19:40.838Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Hormone Therapy, Dilemmas, Medical Decisions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Jay Schulkin
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The question of why women, in consultation with their physicians, should choose hormone therapy (HT) in response to menopause represents a renewed controversy at the beginning of the new century. Conflicting messages regarding the health risks and benefits of HT have been conveyed in the mainstream media, especially information in the media regarding the results of large-scale studies of the health impact of hormone therapy. Women who have been on one or another of the hormone replacement regimes have been forced to reconsider continuing on HT. Doctors who suggest these hormones to their patients are somewhat confused, as are perimenopausal women who are considering HT. Pharmaceutical companies that produce these compounds are worried, and public health officials are on the defensive.

Media coverage of HT research has been extensive. In particular, two large-scale studies, one here in the U.S. (the Women's Health Initiative, or WHI) and the other in Great Britain, have recently cast a negative light on the use of hormone therapy, after years of routine prescription of HT for menopausal women.

Type
Independent
Information
Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , Volume 36 , Issue 1 , Spring 2008 , pp. 73 - 88
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

van Keep, P. A., “The History And Rationale of Hormone Replacement Therapy,” Maturitas 12, no. 3 (1990): 163–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S. Akama, K. Alves, S. Brake, W. G. Bulloch, K. Lee, S. et al., “Tracking the Estrogen Receptor in Neurons: Implications for Estrogen-Induced Synapse Formation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 13 (2001): 7093–7100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett-Connor, E., “Cardiovascular Endocrinology 3: An Epidemiologist Looks at Hormones And Heart Disease,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 88, no. 9 (2003): 4031–4042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haas, J. S. Kaplan, C. P. Gerstenberger, E. P. Kerlokowsje, K., “Changes in the Use of Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy After the Publication on Clinical Trial Results,” Annals of Internal Medicine 140, no. 3 (2004): 184–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, E. S., “Dispensing with Aging: Changing Rationales for Long-Term Hormone Replacement Therapy 1960–2000,” Pharmacy in History 43, no. 1 (2001): 23–37.Google Scholar
Rossouw, J. E. Finnegan, L. P. Harlan, W. R. Pinn, V. W. Clifford, C. McGowan, J. A., “The Evolution of the Women's Health Inititative: Perspectives from the NIH,” Journal of American Medical Women's Association 50 (1995): 50–55.Google Scholar
Wilson, R., Feminine Forever (New York: Evans, 1966).Google Scholar
Turgeon, J. L. McDonnell, D. P. Martin, K. A. Wise, P. M., “Hormone Therapy: Physiological Complexity Belies Therapeutic Simplicity,” Science 304, no. 5675 (2004): 1269–1273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, E. S., “Doctor, Are You Trying to Kill Me? Ambivalence about the Patient Package Insert for Estrogen,” Bulletin of Historical Medicine 76, no. 1 (2002): 84–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See van Keep, , supra note 1.Google Scholar
Barrett-Connor, E., “Postmenopausal Estrogens – Current Prescribing Patterns of San Diego Gynecologists,” Western Journal of Medicine 144 (1986): 620–621.Google Scholar
Colditz, G. A. et al., “The Use of Estrogens and Progestins and the Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women,” New England Journal of Medicine 332, no. 24 (1995): 1589–1593; Nelson, H. D. Humphrey, L. L. Nygren, P. Teutsch, S. M. Allan, J. D., “Postmenopausal Hormone Replacement Therapy: Scientific Review,” JAMA 288, no. 7 (2002): 872–881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Watkins, , supra note 9.Google Scholar
Houck, J. A., Hot and Bothered: Women, Medicine and Menopause in Modern Medicine (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006): 58–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, D. C. Prentice, R. Thompson, D. J. Herrmann, W. L., “Association of Exogenous Estrogen and Endometrial Cancer,” New England Journal of Medicine 293, no. 23 (1975): 1164–1167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ziel, H. Finkle, W. D., “Increased Risk of Endometrial Carcinoma among Users of Conjugated Estrogens,” New England Journal of Medicine 293, no. 27 (1975): 1167–1170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holzman, G. B. Ravitch, M. M. Metheny, W. Rothert, M. L. Holmes, M. Hoppe, R. B., “Physicians’ Judgments about Estrogen Replacement Therapy for Menopausal Women,” Obstetrics & Gynecology 63, no. 3 (1984): 303–309.Google Scholar
Whitehead, M. I. Townsend, P. T. Pryse-Davies, J. Path, F. R. C. Ryder, T. A. King, R. J. B., “Effects of Estrogens and Progestins on the Biochemistry and Morphology of the Postmenopausal Endometrium,” New England Journal of Medicine 305, no. 27 (1981): 1599–1605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hersh, A. L. Stefanick, M. L. Stafford, R. S., “National Use of Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy: Annual Trends and Response to Recent Trends,” JAMA 291, no. 1 (2004): 47–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Barrett-Connor, , supra note 3.Google Scholar
See Watkins, , supra note 9; Houck, , supra note 14.Google Scholar
See Barrett-Connor, , supra note 3; Watkins, , supra note 5; Houck, , supra note 14.Google Scholar
Lock, M., Encounters with Aging (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993): At 236–247.Google Scholar
Murtagh, M. J. Hepworth, J., “Feminist Ethics and Menopause: Autonomy and Decision Making in Primary Care,” Social Science and Medicine 56, no. 8 (2003): 1643–1652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Lock, , supra note 23; Avis, N. E. Kaufert, P. A. Lock, M. McKinlay, S. M. Vass, K., “The Evolution of Menopausal Symptoms,” Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 7, no. 7 (1993): 17–31.Google Scholar
Rothert, M. et al., “Women's Use of Information Regarding Hormone Replacement Therapy,” Research in Nursing and Health 13, no. 6 (1990): 355–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Power, M. L. Schulkin, J., “A Study of Patients of Obstetrician-Gynecologists about Their Knowledge of and Attitudes Towards Hormone Therapy,” Journal of Reproductive Medicine 51, no. 7 (2006): 525–532.Google Scholar
Belisle, S. Reid, R. Mills, C., “Cancer,” Le Journal d’obstétrique et gynécologie du Canada 28 (2006): S87–S94.Google Scholar
Hankinson, S. Colditz, G. A. Manson, J. E. Speizer, F. E., Healthy Women, Healthy Lives (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).Google Scholar
Stampfer, M. J. Willet, W. C. Colditz, G. A. Rosner, B. Speizer, F. E., “A Prospective Study of Postmenopausal Estrogen and Coronary Heart Disease,” New England Journal of Medicine 313, no. 17 (1985): 1044–1049.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, P. W. Garrison, R. J. Castilli, W. P., “Postmenopausal Estrogen Use, Cigarette Smoking and Cardiovascular Morbidity in Women over 50: The Framingham Study,” New England Journal of Medicine 313, no. 17 (1985): 1038–1043.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossouw, J. E., “Coronary Heart Disease in Menopausal Women: Implications of Primary and Secondary Prevention Trials in Hormones,” Maturitas 51, no. 1 (2005): 51–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Hankinson, et al., supra note 29.Google Scholar
“National Institutes of Health State of the Science Conference on Management of Menopause-Related Symptoms,” March 2005, available at <http://consensus.nih.gov/2005/2005MenopausalSymptomsS0S025html.htm> (last visited December 11, 2007) [hereinafter cited as NIH State of the Science]; “Canadian Consensus Conference on Menopause,” Le Journal d'obstétrique et gynécologie du Canada 28, Special Edition (February 2006) 28: S1–S112, available at <http://sogc.medical.org/guidelines/public/171E-CONS-February2006.pdf> (last visited December 11, 2007) [hereinafter cited as Canadian Consensus].+(last+visited+December+11,+2007)+[hereinafter+cited+as+NIH+State+of+the+Science];+“Canadian+Consensus+Conference+on+Menopause,”+Le+Journal+d'obstétrique+et+gynécologie+du+Canada+28,+Special+Edition+(February+2006)+28:+S1–S112,+available+at++(last+visited+December+11,+2007)+[hereinafter+cited+as+Canadian+Consensus].>Google Scholar
V. Beral, Million Women Study Collaborators, “Breast Cancer and Hormone-Replacement Therapy in the Million Women Study,” The Lancet 362, no. 9832 (2003): 419–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vickers, M. Meade, T. Darbyshire, J., “Women's International Study of Long Duration Oestrogen,” Climacteric 5, no. 4 (2002): 317–325.Google Scholar
Holmberg, L. Anderson, H., “HABITS (Hormonal Replacement Therapy after Breast Cancer: Is It safe?): A Randomized Comparison Trial Stopped,” The Lancet 363, no. 9407 (2004): 453–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chlebowski, R. T. Hendrix, S. L. Langer, R. D. Stefanick, M. L. Gass, M. Lane, D. et al., “Influence of Estrogen Plus Progestin on Breast Cancer and Mammography in Healthy Postmenopausal Women: The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Trial,” JAMA 289, no. 24 (2003): 3243–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, G. L., “Effects of Conjugated Equine Estrogen in Postmenopausal Women with Hysterectomy,” JAMA 291, no. 14 (2004): 1701–1711; Stefanick, M. L. Anderson, G. L. Margolis, K. L. et al., “Effects of Conjugated Equine Estrogens on Breast Cancer and Mammography Screening in Postmenopausal Women with Hysterectomy,” JAMA 295, no. 14 (2006): 1647–1657.Google Scholar
See Belisle, Reid, Mills, , supra note 28.Google Scholar
See NIH State of the Science, supra note 34; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
Armstrong, K. Schwartz, J. S. Randall, T. Rubin, S. C. Weber, B., “Hormone Replacement Therapy and Life Expectancy after Prophylactic Oophorectomy in Women with BRCA1/2 Mutations: A Decision Analysis,” Journal of Clinical Oncology 22, no. 6 (2004): 1045–1054.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Canadian Consensus, supra note 34; Belisle, et al., supra note 28.Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. Tversky, A., “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decisions under Risk,” Econometrica 47, no. 2 (1979): 263–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Holzman, et al., supra note 17.Google Scholar
Grodstein, F. et al., “Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy and Mortality,” New England Journal of Medicine 336, no. 25 (1997): 1769–1775.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See NIH State of the Science, supra note 34; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
Hodis, H. N. Mack, W. J. Azen, S. P. Lobo, R. A. Shoupe, D. Mahrer, P. R. et al., “Hormone Therapy and the Progression of Coronary-Artery Atherosclerosis in Postmenopausal Women,” New England Journal of Medicine 349, no. 6 (2003): 535–545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manson, J. E. Hsia, J. Johnson, K. C. Rossouw, J. E. Assaf, A. R. Lasser, N. L. et al., “Estrogen Plus Progestin and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease,” New England Journal of Medicine 349, no. 6 (2003): 523–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lobo, R. A., “Appropriate Use of Hormones Should Alleviate Concerns of Cardiovascular and Breast Cancer Risk,” Maturitas 51, no. 1 (2005): 98–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossouw, J. E. Anderson, G. L. Prentice, R. L. LaCroix, A. Z. Kooperberg, C. Stefanick, M. L. et al., “Risks and Benefits of Estrogen Plus Progestin in Healthy Postmenopausal Women: Principal Results from the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Trial,” JAMA 288, no. 3 (2002): 321–333.Google Scholar
Mastroianni, A. C. Faden, R. Federman, D., eds., Women and Health Research (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994): At 1–18.Google ScholarPubMed
See Anderson, et al., supra note 39.Google Scholar
See Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
See Lobo, , supra note 50.Google Scholar
Hsia, J. Langer, R. D. Manson, J. E. et al., “Conjugated Equine Estrogens and Coronary Heart Disease,” Archives of Internal Medicine, 166, no. 3 (2006): 1701–1712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See NIH State of the Science, supra note 34; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Harman, S. M. Naftolin, F. Brinton, E. A. Judelson, D. R., “Is the Estrogen Controversy Over?” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1052 (2005): 43–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See NIH State of the Science, supra note 34; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
See Lobo, , supra note 50.Google Scholar
Schmidt, P. J., “Depression, the Perimenopause and Estrogen Therapy,” Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences 1052 (2005): 27–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Schmidt, , supra note 62.Google Scholar
See NIH State of the Science, supra note 34; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Hays, J. Ockene, J. K. Brunner, R. L. Kotchen, J. M. Manson, J. E. Patterson, R. E. et al., “Effects of Estrogen Plus Progestin on Health-Related Quality of Life,” New England Journal of Medicine 348, no. 19 (2003): 1839–1854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunner, R. L., “Effects of Conjugated Equine Estrogen on Health-Related Quality of Life in Postmenopausal Women with Hysterectomy,” Archives of Internal Medicine 165, no. 17 (2005): 1976–1986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Schmidt, , supra note 62.Google Scholar
Grigoriadis, S. Sherwin, B., “Mood and Memory” Le Journal d’obstétrique et gynécologie du Canada, special edition 1 (2006): S53–S59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yaffe, K., “Hormone Therapy and the Brain: Déjà Vu All Over Again?” JAMA 289, no. 20 (2003): 2717–2719.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherwin, B., “Surgical Menopause, Estrogen, and Cognitive Function in Women: What Do the Findings Tell Us?” New York Academy of Sciences 1052 (2005): 3–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapp, S. R. Espeland, M. A. Shumaker, S. A. Henderson, V. W. Brunner, R. L. Manson, J. E. et al., “Effect of Estrogen Plus Progestin on Global Cognitive Function in Postmenopausal Women. Women's Health Initiative Memory Study: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” JAMA 289, no. 20 (2003): 2663–2672.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espeland, M. A. Rapp, S. R. Shumaker, S. A. Brunner, R. Manson, J. E. Sherwin, B. B. et al., “Conjugated Equine Estrogens and Global Cognitive Function in Postmenopausal Women,” JAMA 291, no. 291 (2004): 2959–2968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
Henderson, V. W., “Only a Matter of Time: Hormone Therapy and Cognition,” Menopause 12, no. 1 (2005): 1–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagger, Y. Z. Tanko, L. B. Alexanderson, P. Qin, G. Christiansen, C., “Early Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy May Prevent Impairment Later in Life,” Journal of the North American Menopause Society 12, no. 1 (2004): 12–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Grigoriadis, Sherwin, , supra note 70.Google Scholar
See Bagger, et al., supra note 77.Google Scholar
Shumaker, S. A. Legault, C. Rapp, S. R. Thai, L. Wallace, R. B. Ockene, J. K. et al., “Estrogen Plus Progestin and the Incidence of Dementia and Mild Cognitive Impairment in Postmenopausal Women. Women's Health Initiative Memory Study: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” JAMA 289, no. 20 (2003): 2651–2662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Espeland, et al., supra note 74.Google Scholar
Shumaker, S. A. Legault, C. Rapp, S. R. Thai, L. Lane, D. S. et al., “Conjugated Equine Estrogens and Incidence of Probable Dementia and Mild Cognitive Impairment in Postmenopausal Women: Women's Health Initiative Memory Study,” JAMA 291, no. 24 (2004): 2947–2958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Institute of Medicine, Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Flouride? (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences Press, 1997) [hereinafter cited as Institute of Medicine]; see NIH State of the Science, supra note 34; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
Id. (Institute of Medicine and Canadian Consensus).Google Scholar
Greendale, G. A. Espeland, M. Slone, S. Marcus, R. Barrett-Connor, E., “Bone Mass Response to Discontinuation of Long-Term Hormone Replacement Therapy: Results from the Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions (PEPI) Safety Follow-up Study,” Archives of Internal Medicine 162, no. 6 (2002): 665–672; see Institute of Medicine, supra note 83; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cauley, J. A. Robbins, J. Chen, Z. Cumings, S. R. Jackson, R. D. LaCroix, A. Z. et al., “Effects of Estrogen Plus Progestin on Risk of Fracture and Bone Mineral Density: The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Trial,” JAMA 290, no. 13 (2003): 1729–1738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Cauley, et al., supra note 86; Anderson, et al., supra note 39; NIH State of the Science, supra note 34.Google Scholar
See NIH State of the Science, supra note 34; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
Banks, E. Beral, V. Reeves, G. Balkwill, A. Barnes, I., “Fracture Incidence in Relation to the Pattern of Use of Hormone Therapy in Postmenopausal Women,” JAMA 291, no. 18 (2004): 2212–2220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Institute of Medicine, supra note 83; Canadian Consensus, supra note 34.Google Scholar
Id. (Canadian Consensus).Google Scholar
See Hersh, et al., supra note 19.Google Scholar
See Watkins, , supra note 5; Houck, , supra note 12.Google Scholar
Katz, A., “Observations and Advertising: Controversies in the Prescribing of Hormone Replacement Therapy,” Health Care for Women International 24, no. 10 (2003): 927–939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Watkins, , supra note 9.Google Scholar
Whittaker, R., “Reframing The Representation of Women in Advertisements for Hormone Replacement Therapy,” Nursing Inquiry 5, no. 2 (1998): 77–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Telephone conversation between author and Kate Mertes of Mertes Editorial Services, August 2006.Google Scholar
See Katz, , supra note 94; Whittaker, , supra note 96.Google Scholar
See Watkins, , supra note 5; Watkins, , supra note 9.Google Scholar
Id. (2001).Google Scholar
Morgan, M. A. Dana, J. Loewenstein, G. Zinberg, S. Schulkin, J., “Interactions of Doctors with the Pharmaceutical Industry,” Journal of Medical Ethics 32 (2006): 559–563; Chew, L. D. O'Young, T. S. Hazlet, T. K. Bradley, K. A. Maynard, C. Lessler, D. S., “A Physician Survey on the Effect of Drug Sample Availability on Physicians’ Behavior,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 15, no. 7 (2000): 478–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Katz, , supra note 94.Google Scholar
Dana, J. Loewenstein, G., “A Social Science Perspective on Gifts to Physicians from Industry,” JAMA 290, no. 2 (2003): 252–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Morgan, et al., supra note 101.Google Scholar
See Dana, Loewenstein, , supra note 103.Google Scholar
Morgan, M. A. Schulkin, J., “Obstetrician Gynecologists and Self-Identified Depression: Personal and Clinical,” Depression and Anxiety 23, no. 2 (2006): 83–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Morgan, et al., supra note 101.Google Scholar
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, “Guidelines for Relationships with Industry,” in Ethics in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington, D.C., 2002: At 40–43 [hereinafter cited as ACOG Guidelines].Google Scholar
American Medical Association, Opinion of the Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, 2005, available at <www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/4325.html>; see id.;+see+id.>Google Scholar
Angell, M., The Truth about the Drug Companies (New York: Random House, 2004): At 1–319.Google Scholar
See Morgan, et al., supra note 101.Google Scholar
Warner, R., Morality in Medicine (Sherman Oaks, CA: Alfred Publishing Company, 1980): At 1–70.Google Scholar
Macklin, R., Enemies of Patients (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993): At 17–44.Google Scholar
Wolf, S. M., Feminism and Bioethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996): At 3–46.Google ScholarPubMed
Macklin, R., Against Relativism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999): 89–109; Lyerly, A. D. Myers, E. R. Faden, R. R., “The Ethics of Aggregation and Hormone Replacement Therapy,” Health Care Analysis 9, no. 2 (2001): 187–211.Google Scholar
Sarokin, D. Schulkin, J., “Environmentalism and the Right to Know: Expanding the Practice of Democracy,” Ecological Economics 4, no. 3 (1991): 175–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewey, J., Liberalism and Social Action (New York: Capricorn Books, 1935/1963): 1–92; Moreno, J. D., Deciding Together: Bioethics and Moral Consensus (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995): 106–125; Schulkin, J., Medical Decisions, Estrogen and Aging (New York: Springer Books, 2008).Google Scholar
Faden, R. R. Beauchamp, T. L., “Decision Making and Informed Consent: A Study of the Impact of Disclosed Information,” Social Indicators Research 7, nos. 1–4 (1980): 313–336; see Wolf, , supra note 114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pellegrino, E. D., “Patient Autonomy and the Physician's Ethics,” Annals of the Royal College of Physicians & Surgeons of Canada 27, no. 3 (1994): 171–173.Google Scholar
Veatch, R. M., “The Foundations of Bioethics,” Bioethics 13, (1999): 206–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, R. M. Alper, B. S. Quill, T. F., “Communicating Evidence for Participatory Decision Making,” JAMA 291, no. 19 (2004): 2359–2366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, A. E. Davis, R. B. Phillips, R. S., “Discussion of Hormone Replacement Therapy between Physicians and Their Patients,” American Journal of Medical Quality 15, no. 14 (2000): 143–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Id. Power, M. L. Zinberg, S. Schulkin, J., “A Study of Obstetrician-Gynecologists Concerning Practice Patterns and Attitudes towards Hormone Therapy,” Menopause 13, no. 3 (2006): 434–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Legare, F. O'Connor, A. M. Graham, I. D. Wells, G. A. Jacobsen, M. J. Elmsle, T. Drake, E. R., “The Effect of Decision Aids on the Agreement between Women's and Physicians’ Decisional Conflict about Hormone Replacement Therapy,” Patient Education and Counselling 50, no. 2 (2003): 211–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ubel, P. A. Jepson, C. Baron, J., “The Inclusion of Patient Testimonials in Decision Aids: Effects of Treatment Choices,” Medical Decision Making 21, no. 1 (2001): 60–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankel, H. L. Fitzpatrick, M. K. Gaskell, S. Hoff, W. S. Rotondo, M. F. Schwab, C. W., “Strategies to Improve Compliance with Evidence-Based Clinical Management Guidelines,” Journal of the American College of Surgeons 189, no. 6 (1999): 533–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Connor, A. M. Stacey, D. Rovner, D. et al., “Decision Aids for People Facing Health Treatment or Screening Decisions,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2 (2001): CD001431.Google Scholar
See Lyerly, et al., supra note 115.Google Scholar
Baron, J., Thinking and Deciding (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988/2003): At 256–350; Baron, J. Holzman, C. B. Schulkin, J., “Attitudes of Obstetricians and Gynecologists toward Hormone Replacement Therapy,” Medical Decision Making 18, no. 4 (1998): 406–411; Power, M. Baron, J. Schulkin, J., “Factors Associated with Obstetrician-Gynecologists’ Responses to the Women's Health Initiative Trial of Combined Hormone Therapy,” Medical Decision Making (in press, 2008); see Schulkin, , supra note 117.Google Scholar
See Holzman, et al., supra note 17.Google Scholar
Id.Google Scholar
Peterson, H. B. Thacker, S. B. Corso, P. S. Marchbanks, P. A. Koplan, J. P., “Hormone Therapy: Making Decisions in the Face of Uncertainty,” Archives of Internal Medicine 164, no. 21 (2004): 2308–2311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, K. Popik, S. Guerra, C. Ubel, P. A., “Beliefs about Breast Cancer Risk and Use of Postmenopausal Hormone Replacement Therapy,” Medical Decision Making 20, no. 3 (2000): 308–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macklin, R., “Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research,” Experimental Gerontology 29, nos. 3–4 (1994): 519–524; see Lyerly, et al., supra note 115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Katz, , supra note 94.Google Scholar
Hendrix, S., “Menopausal Hormone Therapy Informed Consent,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 189, no. 4, Supplement (2003): S31–S36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkes, H. C. Meade, T. W., “Hormone Replacement Therapy in General Practice: A Survey of Doctors in the MRC's General Practice Research Framework,” BMJ 302, no. 6788 (1991): 1317–1320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schonberg, M. A. Davis, R. B. Wee, C. C., “After the WHI: Decision Making and Trust of Women Taking HT,” Women's Health Issues 15, no. 4 (2005): 187–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrea, F. B., “The Politics of Menopause: The Discovery of a Deficiency Disease,” Social Problems 31, no. 1 (1983): 111–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Houck, , supra note 14; Watkins, , supra note 5; Watkins, , supra note 9.Google Scholar
Krieger, N. et al., “Hormone Replacement Therapy, Cancer, Controversies and Women's Health: Historical, Epidemiological, Biological, Clinical and Advocacy Perspectives,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 59, no. 9 (2006): 740–748.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Watkins, , supra note 9; Katz, , supra note 94.Google Scholar
Hess, R. Chang, C. Conigliaro, J. McNeil, M., “Understanding Physicians’ Attitudes towards Hormone Therapy,” Women's Health Issues 15, no. 1 (2005): 31–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boodman, S., “Hormones Weather ‘The Change,’” Washington Post, September 20, 2005, at F1.Google Scholar
Cox, D., “Should a Doctor Prescribe Hormone Replacement Therapy Which Has Been Manufactured from Mare's Urine?” Journal of Medical Ethics 22, no. 4 (1996): 199–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewey, J., Theory of Valuation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939/1972): 1–66; see Moreno, , supra note 117.Google Scholar
Caplan, A. L., “The Unnaturalness of Aging,” in Caplan, A. L. McCartney, J. J. Sisti, D. A., eds., Health, Disease and Illness (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2004): At 117–127.Google Scholar
Callahan, D., What Price Better Health (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); see id.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See Lock, , supra note 23; id. (Caplan).Google Scholar