Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ttngx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-17T13:39:09.757Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Legal Barriers to Implementing Recommendations for Universal, Routine Prenatal HIV Testing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Leslie E. Wolf ,
Bernard Lo  and
Lawrence O. Gostin
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Administraation of antiretroviral therapy to women during pregnancy, labor and delivery, and to infants postnatally can dramatidy reduce mother-to- child HIV transmission (MTCT). However, pregnant women need to know that they are HIV-infected to take advantage of antiretroviral therapy, and many women do not know their HIV status. One-half of HIV-infected infants in the United States were bornto women who had not been tested for HIV or for whom the time of testing was not known. Although fewer than 400infants are infected perinatally in the United States each year, that number could be reduced even further through policies aimed at HIV testing during pregnancy.

The reasons toadopt such a policy are strong: the pathophysiology of perinatal transmission is clear, prophylaxis is effective and safe, and the intended beneficiaries of the intervention - babies - cannot protect themselves.

Type
Article
Information
Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics , Volume 32 , Issue 1 , Spring 2004 , pp. 137 - 147
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

See, generally, Beckerman, K.P. Morris, A.B. Stek, A., “Mode of Delivery and the Risk of Vertical Transmission of HIV-1,” N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 3 (1999): 205–6;Connor, E.M. Sperling, R.S. Gelber, R. Kiselev, P. Scott, G. O’Sullivan, M.J. et al. , “Reduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 with Zidovudine Treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group,” N. Engl. J. Med. 331, no. 18 (1994):1173–80Guay, L.A. Musoke, P. Fleming, T. Bagenda, D. Allen, M. Nakabiito, C. et al. , “Intrapartum and Neonatal Single-Dose Nevirapine Compared with Zidovudine for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 Randomized Trial,” Lancet 351, no. 9181 (1999): 795–802; McGowan, J.P. Crane, M. Wiznia, A.A. Blum, S., “Combination Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Pregnant Women,” Obstetrics & Gynecology 94, no. 5 (1999):641 –6;Mofenson, L.M. Lambert, J.S. Stiehm, E.R. Bethel, J. Meyer, W.A. III Whitehouse, J. et al. , “Risk Factors for Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Women Treated with Zidovudine,” N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 6 (1999): 385–93;Wade, N.A. Birkhead, G.S. Warren, B.L. Charbonneau, T.T. French, P.T. Wang, L. et al. , “Abbreviated Regimens of Zidovudine Prophylaxis and Perinatal Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus,” N. Engl. J. Med. 339, no. 20 (1998):1409–14.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Revised Guidelines for HIV Counseling, Testing and Referral and Revised Recommendations for HIV Screening of Pregnant Women,” Morbidity Mortality Weekly Reports no. RR-19 (2001): 59–86, at 65–71.Google Scholar
Stoto, M.A. Almario, D.A. McCormick, M.C., eds., Reducing the Odds: Preventing Perinatal Transmission of HIV in the United States (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1999).Google Scholar
American Academy of Pediatrics. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, “Joint Statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists,” Pediatrics 104, no. 1 pt 1 (1999): at 128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2, at 75–77.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Advancing HIV Prevention: New Strategies for a Changing Epidemic – United States 2003, Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report, 52, no. 15 (2003): 329–332, at 332.Google Scholar
See, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2, at 71–72;Watson, A., Reducing Perinatal Transmission, Health Policy Tracking Service, at <http://stateserv.hpts.org/hpts2000/issueb2000.nsf/970e745f9e50ddca852564f0007b3abd> (last visited 6/16/2000). 2003 Ind. House Enrolled Act 1630, sections 6–11 (2003) (effective 7/1/2003). N.M. Stat. Ann. § 24–2B-5 (2003) (effective 6/30/2003). Washington Administrative Code § 246-100-208 (2003) (effective 7/6/2002).+(last+visited+6/16/2000).+2003+Ind.+House+Enrolled+Act+1630,+sections+6–11+(2003)+(effective+7/1/2003).+N.M.+Stat.+Ann.+§+24–2B-5+(2003)+(effective+6/30/2003).+Washington+Administrative+Code+§+246-100-208+(2003)+(effective+7/6/2002).>Google Scholar
N.M. Stat. Ann., supra note 7.Google Scholar
See Bayer, R., Private Acts, Social Consequences: AIDS and the Politics of Public Health (New York: Free Press, 1989): at 101–136.Google Scholar
Stoto, M.A. Almario, D.A. McCormick, M.C., supra note 3, at 74–85 & 104–110.Google Scholar
Id. at 74–84 (and references therein).Google Scholar
Roome, A Hadler, J. Birkhead, G. King, S. Archibald, C. Schrag, S. Lansky, A. Sansom, S. Fowler, M. Onorado, I. Anderson, J., “HIV Testing Among Pregnant Women — United States and Canada, 1998–2001,” Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report 51, no. 45 (2002): 1013–1016.Google Scholar
See generally, Faden, R.R. Kass, N.E. Powers, M., “Warrants for Screening Programs: Public, Health, Legal, and Ethical Frameworks,” in Faden, R.R. Geller, G. Powers, M., eds., AIDS, Women, and the Next Generation: Towards a Morally Acceptable Public Policy for HIV Testing of Pregnant Women and Newborns (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991): at 3–26;Gostin, L.O., “Immunization, Testing, and Screening: Bodily Integrity,” in Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press, (2000): 175–201.Google Scholar
Stoto, M.A. Almario, D.A. McCormick, M.C., supra note 3, at 22–25, 85–96, & 113.Google Scholar
Faden, R.R. Kass, N.E. Powers, M., supra note 13;Gostin, L.O., supra note 13;Stoto, M.A. Almario, D.A. McCormick, M.C., supra note 3, at 24.Google Scholar
Stoto, M.A. Almario, D.A. McCormick, M.C., supra note 3, at 22–25, 85–96, & 113.Google Scholar
Stoto, M.A. Almario, D.A. McCormick, M.C., supra note 3, at 74–84;Roome, A. et al. , supra note 12.Google Scholar
See generally, Gostin, L.O. Feldblum, C. Webber, D.W., “Disability Discrimination in America: HIV/AIDS and Other Health Conditions,” JAMA 281, no. 8 (1999):745–52;“Girl Says Store Fired her Because She’s HIV Positive,” The Seattle Times, Sept. 3, 2001, at Sect. A4;“EEOC Raps Hospital” AIDS Policy and Law 13, no. 2 (1998): at 12;Bragdon v. Abbott, 524 U.S. 624 (1998);“Study Demonstrates that AIDS Stigma Remains Potent,” AIDS Policy and Law15, no.22 (2000): at 5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
See generally, Rothenberg, K.H. Paskey, S.J. Reuland, M.M. Zimmerman, S.I. North, R.L., “Domestic Violence and Partner Notification: Implications for Treatment and Counseling of Women with Hrv,” Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 50, no. 3–4 (1995); 87–93;Rothenberg, K. Paskey, S., “The Risk of Domestic Violence and Women with HIV Infection: Implications for Partner Notification, Public Policy, and the Law,” American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 11 (1995): at 1569 –70;Maman, S. Cambell, J. Sweat, M. Gielen, A., “The Intersections of HIV and Violence: Directions for Future Research and Interventions,” Social Science & Medicine 50, no. 459–78(2000): at 474–5;Helton, A. McFarlane, J. Anderson, E., “Battered and Pregnant: A Prevalence Study,”American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 10 (1987): at 1337–9;Zierler, S. Cunningham, W. et al. , “Violence Victimization after HIV Infection in a US Probability Sample of Adult Patients in Primary Care,” American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 2 (2000): at 208–15;North, R.L. Rothenberg, K.H. “Partner Notification and the Thereat of Domestic Violence Against Women with HFV Infection,” N. Engl. J. Med. 329, no. 16 (1993): at 1194–6;Gielen, A. O’Campo, P. Faden, R. Eke, A., “Women’s Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences of Mistreatment and Violence in an Urban Setting,” Women & Health 25, no. 3 (1997): at 19–31.Google Scholar
See North, R.L. Rothenberg, K.H., supra note 19;Gielen, A. O’Campo, P. Faden, R. Eke, A., supra note 19.Google Scholar
See Lawless, S. Kippax, S. Crawford, J., “Dirty, Diseased and Undeserving: The Positioning of HIV Positive Women,” Social Science and Medicine 43, no. 9 (1996): at 1371–7;Napravnik, S. Royce, R. Walter, E. Lim, W., “HIV-1 Infected Women and Prenatal Care Utilization: Barriers and Facilitators,” AIDS Patient Care and STDs 14, no. 8(2000): at 411–20Oliva, G. Rienks, J. McDermid, M., “What High-Risk Women are Telling us about Access to Primary and Reproductive Health Care and HIV Prevention Services,” AIDS Education and Prevention 11, no. 6 (1999): at 513–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawless, S. Kippax, S. Crawford, J., supra note 21, at 1374.Google Scholar
See, e.g., Tenn. Code Ann. § 68-5-703 (2003);Tex. Health & Safety Code § 81.090 (2003); Ark. Stat. Ann. § 20-16-507 (2003); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2, at 75. Also see, N.M. Stat. Ann., supra note 7.Google Scholar
5 M.RS. § 19204-A (2003) [Maine].Google Scholar
CRIR14-040-006, Section 3.2 (2003) [Rhode Island].Google Scholar
Klein, S. Birkhead, G. Wright, G., “Domestic Violence and HIV/AIDS,” American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 10 (2000): 1648; 10 NYCRR 63.3 (2003).Google Scholar
Ark. Stat. Ann. § 20-15-905 (2003); 410 ILCS 305/8 (2004); K.R.S. § 214.625 (2003) [Kentucky]; K.R.S. § 214.181 (2003); ORC Ann. 3701.242 (Anderson 2003) [Ohio]; Tex. Health & Safety Code § 81.106 (2004).Google Scholar
Code of Ala. § 22–11A-52 (2003).Google Scholar
MCLS § 333.5133, MSA § 14.15(5133) (2003) [Michigan]; 5 M.R.S § 19204-A (2003) [Maine];W.Va. Code § 16–3C-2 (2003);CRIR 14-040-006 (2004)O.C.G.A. § 31-22-9.1 (2003).Google Scholar
N.M. Stat. Ann., supra note 7.Google Scholar
Ark. Code Ann. § 20-16-507 (2003);Conn. Gen. Stat. § 19a-593 (2003); 16 Del. C. § 1204 (2003); 10A NCAC 41A.0202 (2003); R.I. Gen. Laws § 23-13-19 (2003).Google Scholar
Tenn. Code Ann §68-5-703 (2004); Tex. Health & Safety Code § 81.090 (2004).Google Scholar
Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann. § 18–338.2(b)(2) (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann. § 18–338.2(c) (2003) and Cal Health & Saf Code § 125105 (2004).Google Scholar
Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann, supra, note 34.Google Scholar
Ark. Stat. Ann., supra note 18 5 M.R.S. § 19203 (2003)Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann. § 18–336 (2003); § 191.699 R.S.Mo. (2003);18 V.S.A. § 1128(2003); Wis. Stat. § 252.14 (2003).Google Scholar
42 U.S.C.S. § 12101 et. seq. (2003).Google Scholar
See Gostin, L.O. Feldblum, C. Webber, D.W., supra note 18.Google Scholar
Stat, N.M. Ann, supra note 7.Google Scholar
See generally Gostin, L.O., Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press: 2000):Gostin, L. O., “Public Health Law in a New Century: Part I: Law as a Tool to Advance the Community’s Health,” JAMA 283, no. 21 (2000): at 2837 –41;Gostin, L.O., Public Health Law in a New Century: Part II: Public Health Powers and Limits,”JAMA 283, no. 22 (2000): at 3118–22Gostin, L.O., “Public Health Law in a New Century: Part III: Public Health Regulations: A Systematic Evaluation,” JAMA 283, no. 23 (2000): at 3118–22.Google Scholar
Klein, S. Birkhead, G. Wright, G., supra note 26.Google Scholar
See, e.g., NY CLS Pub Health § 2781(3) (2003) (“information about discrimination problems that disclosure of test result could cause”) and COMAR 10.18.08.06(b)(3)(l) (2003) (“That an individual with a positive HIV test result could experience: (i) Emotional discomfort; and (ii) If the test result becomes known in the community, discrimination in work, personal relationships, and insurance”).Google Scholar
See McCullough, L.B. Chervenak, FA, “General Strategies for Preventing Ethical Conflict and Crisis in Clinical Practices” in Ethics in Obstetrics and Gynecology, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), at 133–165 and 198–200.Lo, B., “Ethical Issues in Obstetrics and Gynecology,” in Resolving Ethical Dilemmas: A Guide for Clinicians (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins 2000), at 302–309.Google Scholar
See generally U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2 Rothenberg, K.H. Paskey, S.J. Reuland, M.M. Zimmerman, S.I. North, R.L., supra note 19;Stoto, M.A. Almario, D.A. McCormick, M.C., supra note 3Gostin, L.O., supra note 13;Maman, S. Campbell, J. Sweate, M. Gielen, A., supra 19;North, R.L. Rothenberg, K.H., supra note 19.Google Scholar
See generally Lawless, S. Kippax, S. Crawford, J., supra note 21;Napravnik, S. Royce, R. Walter, E. Lim, W., supra note 21;Oliva, G. Rienks, J. McDermid, M. supra note 21;Ferguson v. Charleston, 121 S. Ct. 1281 (2001);Roberts, D., “Punishing Drug Addicts who have Babies: Women of Color, Equality, and the Right of Privacy,”Harvard Law Review 104, no. 7 (1991): 1419–82.Google Scholar
Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann, supra note 33.Google Scholar
Stoto, M.A. Almario, D.A. McCormick, M.C., supra note 3, at 110–111.Google Scholar
Sengupta, Sohini, personal communication regarding unpublished research results.Google Scholar
Bragdon v. Abbott, supra note 18.Google Scholar
Lesley v. Chie, 250 F.3d 47 (2001), at 53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Id., at 51.Google Scholar
See, e.g., Gostin, L.O. Feldblum, C. Webber, D.W., supra 18 Bragdon v. Abbott, supra note 18.Google Scholar
See, e.g.,Dept. of Social Sews. v. Carraher (In re John T.) 538 N.W.2d 761, (1995) 762 & 765–766Doe v. Div. of Youth & Family Servs., 148 F.Supp.2d 462, (2001) at 472–473.Google Scholar
Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann, supra note 33.Google Scholar
See generally Rothenberg, K.H. Paskey, S.J. Reuland, M.M. Zimmerman, S.I. North, R.L., supra note 19;Rothenberg, K. Paskey, S., supra note 19;Helton, A. McFarlane, J. Anderson, E., supra note 19;Klein, S. Birkhead, G. Wright, G., supra note 26.Google Scholar
42 USCS § 300ff-27a (2002).Google Scholar
See, e.g., Cal. Health & Safety Code § 121015 (2004);O.C.G.A. § 24-9-47 (2003); H.R.S. § 325.101 (2003); and Md. Health & General Code Ann. § 18–337 (2003).Google Scholar