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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 August 2009
Anglo-Burmese relations during Mindon Min's reign (1853–1878) fluctuated between settlement and unsettlement, between friendly gestures and frustrated hopes. By the early 1870's the Burmese ruler had given up dreams of regaining territories captured by the British in the second war, and was busy preserving the independence of his truncated kingdom. However, a Burmese mission failed to secure either direct relations with the British Government or diplomatic support from other European powers. All this while British commercial interests clamoured for the implementation of the Anglo-Burmese treaties of 1862 and 1867, and for the investigation of new trade routes via Burma to China.
1. Northbrook to Salisbury, 21 June 1875, N.C./12. Robert Cecil, 3rd Marquis of Salisbury (1830–1903). was Conservative Sec. for India 1866–7 and 1874–8.
2. Same to same, 7 October 1875 and 7 January 1876, ibid. Salisbury thought this course of action “a very wise one. The King of Burma is not amenable to gentle influences” (to Northbrook, 4 February 1876).
3. See Hall, D. G. B., A History of South East Asia (London, 1955), 547–9Google Scholar (no change in revised edns.); Maung, Maung, Burma in the Family of Nations Amsterdam, 1956) 56–60Google Scholar; Cady, J. F., A History of Modern Burma (New York, 1918), 111–4Google Scholar; Singhall, D. P., The Annexation of Upper Burma (Singapore, 1960), ch. 2Google Scholar; and Aung, Maung Htin, The Stricken Peacock: Anglo-Burmese Relations 1752–1984 (The Hague, 1965), 68–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Singhal quotes from the Lytton papers.
4. Cf Cowling, M., “Lytton, the Cabinet, and the Russians, August to November 1878,” English Historical Review LXXVI (1961), 59–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathoine Hardy, 1st Earl of Cranbrook (1814–1906). Conservative statesman, Home Sec. 1867–8, Sec. for War 1874–8, Sec. for India 1878–80, Lord Pres. of the Council 1885–6, 1886–92.
Robert Bulwer, 1st Earl of Lytton (1831–1891), son of novelist Bulwer Lytton. In the Br. diplomatic service 1849–75; Gov.-Gen,. of India 1876–80; Ambassador to Paris 1887–91.
5. Lytton, to Salisbury, , 25 10 1876; quoted by Singhal, 33.Google Scholar
6. Sir Alfred Comyn Lyall (1835–1911). Educated at Eton and Haileybury. Arrived in India 1856, fought during the Mutiny. Commissioner West Berar 1867–73; Home Sec. Govt. of India 1873–8, acting as Gov.-Gen.'s Agent Rajputana 1874–8; Foreign Sec. 1878–81; Lt.-Gov. N. W. Provinces & Oudh 1882–7; member India Council 1888–1903. Author of Asiatic Studies, British Dominion in India, Life af the Marquis of Dufferin, etc.
7. See below. When the time for annexation arrived, Lyall declared: “I am not … quite satisfied that we are right in building up a great Indo-Chinese dependency alongside of our Indian empire; it increases our stake, and divides our strength” and again, “I am against the annexation … I am sure that if there were trouble in Europe, the strain on our military resources would be great” (Lyall to B. Webb, 19 January 1886, and to S. Holland, 8 February 1886, L.C./10).
8. Eden to Northbrook, 20 March 1875. N.C./17. Northbrook, however, doubted whether Mindon had obstructed the mission or promoted the attack on it (to Salisbury, 5 July 1875, ibid./12).
Sir Ashley Eden (18311887). Arrived in India 1852. Sec. Bengal Govt. 1862–71; Chief Commissr. Br. Burma 1871–7, officiating as member Gov.-Gen.'s Council 1875–7; Lt.-Gov. Bengal 1877–82; member India Council 1882–7.
9. Sir Augustus Rivers Thompson (1829–1890). Arrived in India 1850. Sec. Bengal Govt. 1873–5; acting and then substantive Chief Commissr. Br. Burma 1875–8; member Govr-Gen.'s Council 1878–82; Lt-Gov. Bengal 1882–7.
10. Aitchison to Northbrook, 8 February 1878, N.C./19.
Sir Charles Umpherston Aitchison (1832–1896). Educated Edinburgh Univ. A “competition wallah”, arrived in India 1856. Acting under-sec. Ind. foreign office 1859–65; commissr. Punjab 1865–8; acting and then substantive Foreign Sec. Govt. of India 1868–78; Chief Commissr. Br. Burma 1878–80; member Gov.-Gen.'s Council 1880–2 (provisional), 1887–8; Lt-Gov. Punjab 1882–7; chairman, Public Service Commission 1886–7. Author of A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads and a short biography of Lord Lawrence.
11. See Lyall, to Holland, S., 28 07 1879Google Scholar, L.C./7, for evidence of Lyall's “antipathy” for Aitchison. Cf. Sykes, P., Sir Mortimer Durand (London, 1926), 27Google Scholar,-for corroborative testimony.
12. Browne, H. A., Reminiscences of the Court of Mandalay (Woking, 1907), 143–4Google Scholar. Robert Barkeley Shaw (d. 1879). Explorer in Central Asia, author of Visits to High Tartary Yarkand and Kashgar (1871)Google Scholar and Sketch of the Turki Language as spoken in Eastern Turkistan (1875)Google Scholar. British Resident Mandalay 1878–9.
13. See above, fn. 8, and Northbrook to Salisbury, 21 June 1875, N.C./12; cf. Cady, 109–110, on the circumstances of the attack.
Horace Albert Browne (1832–1914). Commissioned Bengal Infantry 1862, fought in second Anglo-Burmese war. Leader of exploratory mission to Sino-Burmese border 1875. Commissioner of Pegu, on special duty at Mandalay June–August 1879. Colonel 1874, General 1894.
14. Little is known of St. Barbe. Apart from what is related in this article, sources consulted state that he was acting Br. political agent at Bhamo in the 187O's and died in March 1886 attacking dacoits in Bassein district (Nisbet, J., Burma under British Rule and Before (London, 1901), I:48–9).Google Scholar
15. It was rumoured — but retailed by Lytton as gospel-truth — that Theebaw was not the son of Mindon but the product of an illicit union between one of his queens and a Buddhist bonze (Lytton to Cranbrook, 28 February 1879, C.P./11). In any case, he had little claim to the throne (cf.Htin Aung, 69).
16. On this subject generally, see McIntyre, W.D., The Imperial Frontier in the Tropics 1865–75 (London, 1967).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17. Lyall, to Lytton, , 14 09 1878, Lyt. C/519/9.Google Scholar
18. Govt. of India to Sec. State, 17 October 1878, P.P. 1886, vol. L, 282–3.
19. Telegram to Resident, 3 October 1878, enclosed in ibid.
20. Aitchison, to Lytton, , 28 10 1878, Lyt. C./519/9.Google Scholar
21. Burmese Foreign Minister to Shaw, 24 January 1879, enclosed in Govt. of India to Sec. State, 7 March 1879, P.S.D.E.I. (India Office records L/PS/7/21); cf. Singhal, 32–3.
22. Sec. State to Gov.-Gen.-in-Council, 13 February 1879, P.P. 1886, vol. L, 286. This despatch is wrongly dated 17 October 1878 by Singhal, 33.
23. Telegrams, Resident Mandalay and Chief Commissr. Rangoon to Indian Foreign Sec. 19 February 1879; replies of 20–22 February; Viceroy to Sec. State, and reply 21 February, enclosed in Govt. of India to Sec. State, 28 February 1879, P.P. 1886, vol. L, 287–8.
24. Ibid. Cf. Browne, 149.
25. Lytton, to Cranbrook, , 28 02 1879Google Scholar, C.P./11. News of the British disaster at Isandhlwana in Zululand had first reached London on 11 February and prompted the Cabinet to authorize the despatch of immediate reinforcements to South Africa. See Morris, D. R., The Washing of the Spears (London, 1966), 441–3Google Scholar; and Goodfellow, C. F., Great Britain and South African Confederation 1870–1881 (Cape Town, 1966), 160–170.Google Scholar
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28. Telegram, Viceroy to Sec. State, 6 March 1879, read by Cranbrook in the House of Lords (3 Hansard, vol. 244, col. 367, 7 March); and telegram, Indian Foreign Sec. to Resident Mandalay, 8 March 1879, P.P. 1886, vol. L, 306. At the end of February Shaw had been offered, but had refused, the use of a government steamer to facilitate any necessary withdrawal; cf. Browne, 151.
29. Govt. of India to Sec. State, 7 March 1879, P.S.D.E.I. (India Office records L/PS/7/21), printed in P.P. 1886, vol. L, 291–9.
30. Lytton, to Aitchison, , 8 03 1879, Lyt. C./518/4.Google Scholar
31. Ibid. This alternative was favoured by Lyall (cf. fn. 7).
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33. Same to same, 16 March 1879, ibid.
34. Lytton, to Cranbrook, , 19 03 1879, C.P./78.Google Scholar
35. Telegram, Foreign Sec. to Chief Commissr. Br. Burma, 21 March 1879, copy enclosed in Lyall to Lytton, 27 June 1879, Lyt.C./519/11.
36. Aitchison, to Lyall, , 23 03 1879Google Scholar, enclosed in Lytton, to Cranbrook, , 4 04 1879Google Scholar, C.P./51. A marginal note by Lyall explained the error in decipher.
37. Shaw, to Aitchison, , 16 03 1879Google Scholar, enclosed in ibid.
38. See 3 Hansard, vol. 244, cols. 282–3, (6 March), 367, 404 (7 March), and 905–6 (14 March). Sir Stafford Northcote, later 1st Earl of Iddesleigh (1818–1887) was Chancellor of the Exchequer 1874–80 and Conservative leader of the House of Commons 1876–85. He had been Sec. for India 1867–8.
39. Cranbrook, to Lytton, , 23 03 1879Google Scholar, Lyt.C/516/4; cf. same to same, 31 March 1879, ibid.
40. Beaconsfield to Cranbrook, 31 March 1879, C.P./266. Benjamin Disraeli (1804–81) had been created 1st Earl of Beaconsfield in 1876. He was Conservative Prime Minister 1868 and 1874–80. In answer to a question in the House of Commons on 18 March, Northcote denied, on Cranbrook's authority, that an ultimatum had been sent to Theebaw or was contemplated by Lytton. 3 Hansard, vol. 244, col. 1152.
41. Sec. State to Gov.-Gen.-in-Council, 3 April 1879, P.P. 1886, vol. L, 383.
42. Letter cited in fn. 34.
49. See Lytton, to Eden, , 5 04 1879Google Scholar, Lyt. C/518/4. Rivers Thompson, who was consulted, expressed misgivings about the arrangement.
44. Eden, to Lytton, , 9 04 1879, Lyt. C./519/10.Google Scholar
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46. See the letters cited in fn. 43 and 44; and Aitchison, to Lyall, , 6 04 1879. L.C./19.Google Scholar
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50. To Cranbrook, 4 April 1879, enclosing Aitchison to Lyall, 23 March 1879, C.P./51.
51. Aitchison, to Lyall, , 13 04 1879Google Scholar, L.C./19, and to Lytton, 27 April 1879, Lyt. C/519/10.
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80. To Cranbrook, 21 September 1879, C.P./31.
81. Telegram, Foreign Sec. to Chief Commisr. Br. Burma, 19 September 1879, P.P 1886, vol. L, 334.
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