page 395 note 1. Encyclopedia of Islam III, 1174–5.Google Scholar

page 395 note 2. The History of Sumatra 3rd Ed. (London, 1811), pp. 341–2.Google Scholar

page 395 note 3. Ibid. pp. 338–41.

page 396 note 4. Saleh, Siti Hawa, Hikayat Merang Mahawangsa (Unpublished M.A. Thesis, University of Malaya, 1966)Google Scholar.

Lubis, Abdullah b. Haji Musa (ed.), Kesah Raja Marong, Maha Wangsa (Kuala Lumpur, 1965)Google Scholar. Winstedt, R. O., ‘The Kedah Annals’, JMBRAS 16, 11 (1938), 31–5Google Scholar. Hooykaas, C., Over Maleise Literatuur 2nd Ed. (Leiden, 1947), pp. 91–4.Google Scholar

page 396 note 5. Zainuddin, H. M., Tarich Atjeh dan Nusantara (Medan, 1961), pp. 197–8Google Scholar. For another reference to Gayo origins see Hill, A. H. (ed.) ‘Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai’, JMBRAS 33, Ft. 2 (1960), p. 120.Google Scholar

page 397 note 6. la-lah yang meng'adakan segala isti'adat kerajaan Atjeh Daru's-Salam dan menyuroh utusan kapada Sultan Rum, ka-negeri Istanbul, kerana menegohkan ugama Islam. Maka di-kirim Sultan Rum daripada jenis utus dan pandai yang tahu menuang bedil. Maka pada zaman itu-lah di-tuang orang meriam yang besar2. Dan ia-lah yang pertama2 berbuat kota di-negeri Atjeh Daru's-Salam, dan ia-lah yang pertama2 ghazi dengan segala kafir, hingga sendiri-nya berangkat menyerang Melaka.

Iskandar, T. (ed.), Bustanu's-Salatati Bab II, Fasal 13 (Kuala Lumpur, 1966), pp. 31–2.Google Scholar

page 397 note 7. The cannon is described in Krucq, K. C., ‘Beschrijving der kanonnen afkomstig uit Atjeh, thans in het Koninklijk Militair Invalidenhuis Bronbeek’, TBG 81 (1941), pp. 545–6.Google Scholar

page 397 note 8. This has been published only in the form of a shortened Malay prose translation by Sabil, T. Mohamad, entitled Hikajat Soeltan Atjeh Marhoem (Soeltan Iskandar Moedai), (Batavia, 1932)Google Scholar. H. K. J. Cowan believes the Atjehnese original to be a reworking of the better-known Atjehnese verse epic Hikayat Malem Dagang, with the addition at the beginning of this Turkish incident. De “Hikajat Malěm Dagang” (The Hague, 1937), pp. 12–13.Google Scholar

page 397 note 9. Sabil, T. Mohamad, pp. 3–11.Google Scholar

page 398 note 10. Hurgronje, Snouck, The Achehnese, trans. O'Sullivan, A. W. S. (Leiden, 1906)Google Scholar. I, 208–9. Also Said, Mohammad, Atjeh Sepandjang A bad (Medan, 1961), p. 101Google Scholar. The interpretation of the mission as one of tribute rather than alliance in the version of 1891 may owe something to the events of 1873, when the Atjehnese attempted to portray their country as under Turkish suzerainty.

page 398 note 11. Bey, Saffet, ‘Bir Osmanli Filosunun Sumatra Seferi’, Tarihi Osmani Encümeni Mecmuasi 11 (1912), pp. 681–3Google Scholar. See Appendix for this material.

page 398 note 12. Sultan Selim I (1512–20) seems to be meant here. He conquered Egypt in 1517 and received as a result the submission of the Hejaz. If so it must be the result of a confusion with Selim II (1566–78), under whom the contact did take place, and; the Yemen was reconquered (see below, pp. 16–17). A Turkish newspaper of 1873 similarly attributed it to Selim I; see Djajadiningrat, R. H., ‘Critisch Overzicht van de in Maleische Werken Vervatte Gegevens over de Geschiedenis van het Soeltanaat van Atjeh’, BKI 65 (1911), p. 146Google Scholar. Curiously, Krucq, K. C., op. cit. p. 546Google Scholar, appears to have made the same mistake.

page 399 note 13. Rashid (Turkish Foreign Minister) to Musurus (Ambassador to Britain and the Netherlands) 11 Aug. 1873, Woltring, (ed.), Bescheiden Betreffende de Buitenlandse Politiek van Nederland, 2de Periode (The Hague, 1962), I, 612.Google Scholar

page 399 note 14. Iskandar, T. (ed.) ‘De Hikajat Atjeh’, VKI XXVI (The Hague, 1958), p. 167 (p. 239 of MS).Google Scholar

page 399 note 15. Ibid. p. 167 (p. 238 of MS).

page 399 note 16. Ibid. pp. 62–4 and 157–69 (pp. 215–42 of MS). Also Djajadiningrat, , pp. 177–8.Google Scholar

page 399 note 17. Hikajat Hang Toeah (2nd ed. Balai Pustaka, Batavia, 1948), II, 237–87.Google Scholar

page 400 note 18. Djajadiningrat, , p. 152.Google Scholar

page 400 note 19. Lach, Donald, Asia and the Making of Europe, I, ii, p. 107Google Scholar. Serjeant, R. B., Tlie Portuguese off the South Arabian Coast, Hadrami Chronicles (Oxford, 1963), p. 14.Google Scholar

page 400 note 20. Infra, p. 416.

page 400 note 21. Meilink-Roelofsz, M. A. P., Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague, 1962), p. 145.Google Scholar

page 401 note 22. Iskandar, , ‘De Hikajat Atjeh’, p. 38.Google Scholar

page 401 note 23. Infra, p. 403.

page 401 note 24. Iskandar, , loc. cit. Djajadiningrat, pp. 152–3.Google Scholar

page 401 note 25. Pinto's unreliability has been demonstrated in the case of his supposed adventures in Siam and elsewhere, but not for matters in Sumatra which were of more immediate concern to his probable informers in Malacca. His account is confirmed in general terms by some other Portuguese references (v. MacGregor, , in JMBRAS 28, ii, p. 82) and has been consistently followed by historians of the area.Google Scholar

page 401 note 26. The Voyages and Adventures of Ferdinand Mendez Pinto, the Portuguese trans. Cogan, H., introd. Vamberry, A. (London, 1891), pp. 31–2.Google Scholar

page 401 note 27. Serjeant, , pp. 76–7 and 79–80Google Scholar. Ross, E. Denison, ‘The Portuguese in India and Arabia 1517 – 1538’, JRAS 1922, p. 15.Google Scholar

page 402 note 28. Macgregor, I. A., ‘Johore Lama in the Sixteenth Century’, JMBRAS 28 ii. p. 81.Google Scholar

page 402 note 29. Hadhrami chronicle al-Sana al-Bahir, quoted Serjeant, , p. 97.Google Scholar

page 402 note 30. Dames, M. Longworth, ‘The Portuguese and Turks in the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century’, JRAS 1921.Google Scholar

page 402 note 31. Pinto, , p. 63.Google Scholar

page 402 note 32. Ibid., pp. 62–76.

page 403 note 33. Macgregor, , pp. 84–5Google Scholar, quoting respectively Simao de Mello, 1545, and Luis Frois, S.J., 1555.

page 403 note 34. de Graaf, H. J., ‘De Regering van Panembahan Senapati Ingalaga’, VKI XIII (1954), pp. 33–4Google Scholar; Tiele, P. A., ‘De Europeërs in den Maleischen Archipel’, BKI 28 (1880), p. 321Google Scholar, Meilink-Roelofsz, , p. 149Google Scholar. The main source for all these references is again Couto.

page 403 note 35. At Ala'ad-din al-Kahar's death in 1571, and probably for some time previously, his son Raja Mughal was established as Atjehnese viceroy in Pariaman. Judging by 18th and 19th Century experience, Atjehnese methods of growing pepper on virgin soil began to produce diminishing returns within less than a century as a result of soil exhaustion (v. especially Gould, J. ‘Sumatra – America's Pepperpot, 1784–1873’ Essex Institute, Historical Collections 122 (1956), pp. 207–39 and 297–319)Google Scholar. The old centres of Pidië and Pasai, still at their peak in Tomé Pires' time, were unimportant by the end of the century. We may, therefore, suggest a shift in the centre of pepper-growing sometime in the middle decades of the sixteenth century with the rapid growth of the west coast plantations.

page 404 note 36. Bey, Saffet, ‘Bir Osmanli Filosunun Sumatra Seferi’, TOEM 10 (1912), pp. 606–9Google Scholar. See appendix to this paper for the Turkish materials.

page 404 note 37. Saffet, , op. cit. 11 (1912), p. 680.Google Scholar

page 404 note 38. Ibid.loc. cit.

page 405 note 39. Von Hammer, cited in Lombard, Denys, Le Sultanat d'Atjeh au temps d'Iskandar Muda (Paris, 1967), p. 37n.Google Scholar

page 405 note 40. Tiele, , op. cit. p. 424.Google Scholar

page 405 note 41. Boxer, , infra, p. 418Google Scholar, Serjeant, , p. 110.Google Scholar

page 405 note 42. De Couto, Diogo, Da Asia (Lisbon, 1786) VIII, caps. 21 and 22.Google Scholar

page 405 note 43. As assumed by Tiele, , op. cit. p. 425Google Scholar; De Graaf, , p. 68Google Scholar; Djajadiningrat, , p. 155Google Scholar; Meilink-Roelofsz, , p. 149Google Scholar, and ProfessorBoxer, , infra, p. 420Google Scholar. My doubt is strengthened by Couto's introduction to his account of Atjehnese plans, which states that after mastering Pedir, Pasai and Aru, only Malacca stood in his way to becoming emperor of the Malays. The conquest of Aru and Johor are usually dated in 1564.

page 406 note 44. Letters of Peres, L., Malacca, 11 and 2 12, 1566Google Scholar, in Wicki, J. (ed.), Documenta Indica VII (MHSI 89, Rome, 1962), pp. 33–4 and 89Google Scholar. Tiele, , pp. 425–6Google Scholar, doubts the validity of this story, but he has it only from a secondary Jesuit source.

page 406 note 45. Wicki, , p. 88.Google Scholar

page 406 note 46. Letter of da Costa, C., Malacca, 6 12 1868Google Scholar, Wicki, , op. cit. pp. 529–30Google Scholar. Also ibid. pp. 514–5, and 574–5.

page 406 note 47. Wicki, , Documenta Indica VIII (MHSI 91, Rome, 1964), pp. 488–9Google Scholar. Danvers, F. C., The Portuguese in India (London, 1894), I, pp. 551–571.Google Scholar

page 407 note 48. The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies (Hakluyt, London, 1885) I, p. 110Google Scholar. Linschoten's wonder at the size of this cannon, “hardly to be found in all Christendom”, is echoed in numerous contemporary European descriptions of Turkish artillery. For the anachronistic Turkish preoccupation with size rather than efficiency in their cannons, see Cipolla, C. M., Guns and ships in the Early Phase of European Expansion (London, 1965) pp. 93–9.Google Scholar

page 408 note 49. De Graaf, , pp. 34–5Google Scholar. Macgregor, , p. 86.Google Scholar

page 408 note 50. Macgregor, , pp. 86–8.Google Scholar

page 408 note 50a. Such relationships were known only among petty pre-Muslim states in adjacent areas, particularly in 16th Century South Celebes. See Resink, G. J., Indonesia's History Between the Myths (The Hague, 1967), p. 201.Google Scholar

page 409 note 51. A clear example of this rivalry appears from the Turkish merchant the Dutch encountered in Bantam in 1596, who was unable to return through Atjeh because the Sultan was seizing all traders who came from Bantam. van Leur, J. C., Indonesian Trade and Society (The Hague, 1955), pp. 3–4.Google Scholar

page 409 note 92. Letter of De Ribera, (Macau), 10 1568Google Scholar, in Wicki, VII, p. 514.Google Scholar

page 409 note 53. Allen, W. E. D., Problems of Turkish Power in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1930), p. 30.Google Scholar

page 409 note 54. Uzuncarsili, I. H., Osmanli Tarihi III/i (Ankara, 1951), pp. 31–3.Google Scholar

page 410 note 55. Creasy, E. S., History of the Ottoman Turks (London, 1878), pp. 224–5.Google Scholar

page 410 note 56. Allen, , pp. 32–3Google Scholar. Dames, Longworth, JRAS 1921, pp. 25–8.Google Scholar

page 410 note 57. Macgregor, , p. 88Google Scholar. Iskandar, , p. 39.Google Scholar

page 410 note 58. Boxer, , infra, pp. 427–28.Google Scholar

page 410 note 59. The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster to Brazil and the East Indies 1591–1603 (Hakluyt, London, 1940), pp. 94–5, and 97–8Google Scholar. The Voyages and Works of John Davis the Navigator (Hakluyt, London, 1880), pp. 142–3.Google Scholar

page 411 note 60. Beaulieu, , ‘Voyage to the East Indies’, in Harris, John (ed.), Navigantium atque Itinerarium Bibliotheca (London, 1705) I, p. 250.Google Scholar

page 411 note 61. Ibid. p. 251.

page 411 note 62. See especially ibid. pp. 251–5.

page 411 note 63. Djajadiningrat, , pp. 160–1.Google Scholar

page 411 note 64. Lancaster, , pp. 96 and 109–11.Google Scholar

page 412 note 1. Article, ‘Atjeh’, Encyclopedia of Islam I, p. 743.Google Scholar

page 412 note 2. ‘Bir Osmanli Filosunun Sumatra Seferi’, Tarihi Ostnani Encümeni Mecmuasi 10, pp. 604–14; 11, pp. 678–83.Google Scholar

page 414 note 3. Tuanku Daud, who resigned the Sultanate in submitting to the Dutch in 1903, and was exiled from Atjeh three years later.

page 414 note 4. Abdur'rauf of Singkil, the national saint of Atjeh. He is known as Teungku Sheikh Kuala because his keramat, or tomb, is at the mouth of the Atjeh river. This linking of his name with the Turkish expedition seems to be gratuitous. Rinkes, D. A., Abdoerraoef van Singkel. Bijdrage tot de kennis van de mystiek op Java en Sumtra (Friesland, 1909).Google Scholar

page 414 note 5. Osmanli Tarihi II (Ankara, 1949), pp. 388–9.Google Scholar

page 414 note 6. Danismend, I. H., Osman'li Tarihi Kronolojisi II (Instanbul, 1948), pp. 380–1.Google Scholar