Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-9b74x Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-04T13:43:49.097Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Attention/Working Memory, Learning and Memory in Adult Cameroonians: Normative Data, Effects of HIV Infection and Viral Genotype

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2020

Georgette D. Kanmogne Open the ORCID record for Georgette D. Kanmogne [Opens in a new window] ,
Julius Y. Fonsah ,
Anya Umlauf ,
Jacob Moul ,
Roland F. Doh ,
Anne M. Kengne ,
Bin Tang ,
Claude T. Tagny ,
Emilienne Nchindap  and
Léopoldine Kenmogne
...Show all authors
Georgette D. Kanmogne*
Affiliation:
Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198, USA
Julius Y. Fonsah
Affiliation:
Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon Department of Neurology, Yaoundé Central Hospital/Brain Research Africa Initiative (BRAIN), Yaoundé, Cameroon
Anya Umlauf
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA92093, USA
Jacob Moul
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA92093, USA
Roland F. Doh
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, Yaoundé Central Hospital/Brain Research Africa Initiative (BRAIN), Yaoundé, Cameroon
Anne M. Kengne
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, Yaoundé Central Hospital/Brain Research Africa Initiative (BRAIN), Yaoundé, Cameroon
Bin Tang
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA92093, USA
Claude T. Tagny
Affiliation:
Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon Yaoundé University Teaching Hospital, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Emilienne Nchindap
Affiliation:
Yaoundé University Teaching Hospital, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Léopoldine Kenmogne
Affiliation:
Yaoundé University Teaching Hospital, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Donald Franklin
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA92093, USA
Dora M. Njamnshi
Affiliation:
HIV-Day Care Service, Yaoundé Central Hospital, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Dora Mbanya
Affiliation:
Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon Yaoundé University Teaching Hospital, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Alfred K. Njamnshi
Affiliation:
Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon Department of Neurology, Yaoundé Central Hospital/Brain Research Africa Initiative (BRAIN), Yaoundé, Cameroon
Robert K. Heaton
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA92093, USA
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Georgette Kanmogne, PhD, MPH, Professor, Vice-Chair for Resource Allocation and Faculty Development, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE68198-5800, USA. E-mail: gkanmogne@unmc.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective:

There is lack of Cameroonian adult neuropsychological (NP) norms, limited knowledge concerning HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in Sub-Saharan Africa, and evidence of differential inflammation and disease progression based on viral subtypes. In this study, we developed demographically corrected norms and assessed HIV and viral genotypes effects on attention/working memory (WM), learning, and memory.

Method:

We administered two tests of attention/WM [Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT)-50, Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS)-III Spatial Span] and two tests of learning and memory [Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised (BVMT-R), Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised (HVLT-R)] to 347 HIV+ and 395 seronegative adult Cameroonians. We assessed the effects of viral factors on neurocognitive performance.

Results:

Compared to controls, people living with HIV (PLWH) had significantly lower T-scores on PASAT-50 and attention/WM summary scores, on HVLT-R total learning and learning summary scores, on HVLT-R delayed recall, BVMT-R delayed recall and memory summary scores. More PLWH had impairment in attention/WM, learning, and memory. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) and current immune status had no effect on T-scores. Compared to untreated cases with detectable viremia, untreated cases with undetectable viremia had significantly lower (worse) T-scores on BVMT-R total learning, BVMT-R delayed recall, and memory composite scores. Compared to PLWH infected with other subtypes (41.83%), those infected with HIV-1 CRF02_AG (58.17%) had higher (better) attention/WM T-scores.

Conclusions:

PLWH in Cameroon have impaired attention/WM, learning, and memory and those infected with CRF02_AG viruses showed reduced deficits in attention/WM. The first adult normative standards for assessing attention/WM, learning, and memory described, with equations for computing demographically adjusted T-scores, will facilitate future studies of diseases affecting cognitive function in Cameroonians.

Keywords

Neuropsychological testsNormsSub-Saharan AfricaHIV/AIDSSubtypesNeurocognitive impairment

Information

Type
Regular Research
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 26 , Issue 6 , July 2020 , pp. 607 - 623
Copyright
Copyright © INS. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES

Acharya, A., Fonsah, J.Y., Mbanya, D., Njamnshi, A.K., & Kanmogne, G.D. (2019). Near-full-length genetic characterization of a novel HIV-1 unique recombinant with similarities to A1, CRF01_AE, and CRFO2_AG viruses in Yaounde, Cameroon. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 35(8), 762–768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akolo, C., Royal, W., Cherner, M., Okwuasaba, K., Eyzaguirre, L., Adebiyi, R., Umlauf, A., Hendrix, T., Johnson, J., Abimiku, A., & Blattner, W.A. (2014). Neurocognitive impairment associated with predominantly early stage HIV infection in Abuja, Nigeria. Journal of NeuroVirology, 20(4), 380–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antinori, A., Arendt, G., Becker, J.T., Brew, B.J., Byrd, D.A., Cherner, M., Clifford, D.B., Cinque, P., Epstein, L.G., Goodkin, K., Gisslen, M., Grant, I., Heaton, R.K., Joseph, J., Marder, K., Marra, C.M., McArthur, J.C., Nunn, M., Price, R.W., Pulliam, L., Robertson, K.R., Sacktor, N., Valcour, V., & Wojna, V.E. (2007). Updated research nosology for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neurology, 69(18), 1789–1799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arentoft, A., Byrd, D., Monzones, J., Coulehan, K., Fuentes, A., Rosario, A., Miranda, C., Morgello, S., & Rivera Mindt, M. (2015). Socioeconomic status and neuropsychological functioning: associations in an ethnically diverse HIV+ Cohort. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(2), 232–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayisi, N.K. & Nyadedzor, C. (2003). Comparative in vitro effects of AZT and extracts of Ocimum gratissimum, Ficus polita, Clausena anisata, Alchornea cordifolia, and Elaeophorbia drupifera against HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections. Antiviral Research, 58(1), 25–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belanger, H.G., Kretzmer, T., Yoash-Gantz, R., Pickett, T., & Tupler, L.A. (2009). Cognitive sequelae of blast-related versus other mechanisms of brain trauma. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(1), 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benedict, R. (1997). Brieft Visuospatial Memory Test-revisited. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.Google Scholar
Benedict, R.H. & Zivadinov, R. (2007). Reliability and validity of neuropsychological screening and assessment strategies in MS. Journal of Neurology, 254(Suppl 2), II22–II25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhargavan, B. & Kanmogne, G.D. (2018). Differential mechanisms of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction by HIV-1 subtype-B and recombinant CRF02_AG Tat proteins on human brain microvascular endothelial cells: implications for viral neuropathogenesis. Molecular Neurobiology, 55(2), 1352–1363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhargavan, B. & Kanmogne, G.D. (2019). Epigenetics, N-myrystoyltransferase-1 and casein kinase-2-alpha modulates the increased replication of HIV-1 CRF02_AG, compared to subtype-B viruses. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 10689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brandt, J. & Benedict, R. (2001). Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-revised. Lutz, FL: Phsychological Assessment Resources, Inc.Google Scholar
Brennan, C.A., Bodelle, P., Coffey, R., Devare, S.G., Golden, A., Hackett, J. Jr., Harris, B., Holzmayer, V., Luk, K.C., Schochetman, G., Swanson, P., Yamaguchi, J., Vallari, A., Ndembi, N., Ngansop, C., Makamche, F., Mbanya, D., Gurtler, L.G., Zekeng, L., & Kaptue, L. (2008). The prevalence of diverse HIV-1 strains was stable in Cameroonian blood donors from 1996 to 2004. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 49(4), 432–439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, C.L., Woods, S.P., Rippeth, J.D., Gonzalez, R., Moore, D.J., Marcotte, T.D., Grant, I., Heaton, R.K., & Group, H. (2004). Initial validation of a screening battery for the detection of HIV-associated cognitive impairment. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 18(2), 234–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casaletto, K.B., Umlauf, A., Beaumont, J., Gershon, R., Slotkin, J., Akshoomoff, N., & Heaton, R.K. (2015). Demographically corrected normative standards for the English version of the NIH toolbox cognition battery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21(5), 378–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, R.A., Siegel, S., Gullett, J.M., Porges, E., Woods, A.J., Huang, H., Zhu, Y., Tashima, K., & Ding, M.Z. (2018). Neural response to working memory demand predicts neurocognitive deficits in HIV. Journal of NeuroVirology, 24(3), 291–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? Progress in Brain Research, 169, 323–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cysique, L.A., Heaton, R.K., Kamminga, J., Lane, T., Gates, T.M., Moore, D.M., Hubner, E., Carr, A., & Brew, B.J. (2014). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder in Australia: a case of a high-functioning and optimally treated cohort and implications for international neuroHIV research. Journal of NeuroVirology, 20(3), 258–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cysique, L.A., Jin, H., Franklin, D.R. Jr., Morgan, E.E., Shi, C., Yu, X., Wu, Z., Taylor, M.J., Marcotte, T.D., Letendre, S., Ake, C., Grant, I., Heaton, R.K., & Group, H. (2007). Neurobehavioral effects of HIV-1 infection in China and the United States: a pilot study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(5), 781–790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Almeida, S.M., Ribeiro, C.E., de Pereira, A.P., Badiee, J., Cherner, M., Smith, D., Maich, I., Raboni, S.M., Rotta, I., Barbosa, F.J., Heaton, R.K., Umlauf, A., & Ellis, R.J. (2013). Neurocognitive impairment in HIV-1 clade C- versus B-infected individuals in Southern Brazil. Journal of NeuroVirology, 19(6), 550–556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Almeida, S.M., Rotta, I., Jiang, Y., Li, X., Raboni, S.M., Ribeiro, C.E., Smith, D., Potter, M., Vaida, F., Letendre, S., Ellis, R.J., & Group, H. (2016). Biomarkers of chemotaxis and inflammation in cerebrospinal fluid and serum in individuals with HIV-1 subtype C versus B. Journal of NeuroVirology, 22(6), 715–724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diehr, M.C., Cherner, M., Wolfson, T.J., Miller, S.W., Grant, I., Heaton, R.K., & Group, H.I.V.N.R.C. (2003). The 50 and 100-item short forms of the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT): demographically corrected norms and comparisons with the full PASAT in normal and clinical samples. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(4), 571–585.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dujardin, K., Deneve, C., Ronval, M., Krystkowiak, P., Humez, C., Destee, A., & Defebvre, L. (2007). Is the paced auditory serial addition test (PASAT) a valid means of assessing executive function in Parkinson’s disease? Cortex, 43(5), 601–606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, R.J., Badiee, J., Vaida, F., Letendre, S., Heaton, R.K., Clifford, D., Collier, A.C., Gelman, B., McArthur, J., Morgello, S., McCutchan, J.A., Grant, I., & Group, C. (2011). CD4 nadir is a predictor of HIV neurocognitive impairment in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS, 25(14), 1747–1751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erb, P., Battegay, M., Zimmerli, W., Rickenbach, M., & Egger, M. (2000). Effect of antiretroviral therapy on viral load, CD4 cell count, and progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in a community human immunodeficiency virus-infected cohort. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 160(8), 1134–1140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ettenhofer, M.L., Foley, J., Castellon, S.A., & Hinkin, C.H. (2010). Reciprocal prediction of medication adherence and neurocognition in HIV/AIDS. Neurology, 74(15), 1217–1222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farinpour, R., Martin, E.M., Seidenberg, M., Pitrak, D.L., Pursell, K.J., Mullane, K.M., Novak, R.M., & Harrow, M. (2000). Verbal working memory in HIV-seropositive drug users. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6(5), 548–555.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fogel, J.M., Wang, L., Parsons, T.L., Ou, S.S., Piwowar-Manning, E., Chen, Y., Mudhune, V.O., Hosseinipour, M.C., Kumwenda, J., Hakim, J.G., Chariyalertsak, S., Panchia, R., Sanne, I., Kumarasamy, N., Grinsztejn, B., Makhema, J., Pilotto, J., Santos, B.R., Mayer, K.H., McCauley, M., Gamble, T., Bumpus, N.N., Hendrix, C.W., Cohen, M.S., & Eshleman, S.H. (2013). Undisclosed antiretroviral drug use in a multinational clinical trial (HIV Prevention Trials Network 052). The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 208(10), 1624–1628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, P.S., Drago, V., Crucian, G.P., Skidmore, F., Rhodes, R.D., Shenal, B.V., Skoblar, B., & Heilman, K.M. (2010). Verbal and visuospatial memory in lateral onset Parkinson disease: time is of the essence. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 23(1), 19–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gandhi, N., Saiyed, Z., Thangavel, S., Rodriguez, J., Rao, K.V., & Nair, M.P. (2009). Differential effects of HIV type 1 clade B and clade C Tat protein on expression of proinflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokines by primary monocytes. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 25(7), 691–699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia, F., Vidal, C., Gatell, J.M., Miro, J.M., Soriano, A., & Pumarola, T. (1997). Viral load in asymptomatic patients with CD4+ lymphocyte counts above 500 x 10(6)/l. AIDS, 11(1), 53–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gronwall, D.M. (1977). Paced auditory serial-addition task: a measure of recovery from concussion. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 44(2), 367–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gupta, J.D., Satishchandra, P., Gopukumar, K., Wilkie, F., Waldrop-Valverde, D., Ellis, R., Ownby, R., Subbakrishna, D.K., Desai, A., Kamat, A., Ravi, V., Rao, B.S., Satish, K.S., & Kumar, M. (2007). Neuropsychological deficits in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 clade C-seropositive adults from South India. Journal of NeuroVirology, 13(3), 195–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haile, K.T., Ayele, A.A., Mekuria, A.B., Demeke, C.A., Gebresillassie, B.M., & Erku, D.A. (2017). Traditional herbal medicine use among people living with HIV/AIDS in Gondar, Ethiopia: do their health care providers know? Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 35, 14–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haokip, P., Singh, H.R., Laldinmawii, G., Marak, E.K., & Roy, A. (2018). Quantification of human immunodeficiency virus-1 viral load and its correlation with CD4 cell count in antiretroviral therapy naïve patients attending Regional Institute of Medical Sciences Hospital, Imphal. Journal of Medical Society, 32(2), 89–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heaton, R.K., Clifford, D.B., Franklin, D.R. Jr., Woods, S.P., Ake, C., Vaida, F., Ellis, R.J., Letendre, S.L., Marcotte, T.D., Atkinson, J.H., Rivera-Mindt, M., Vigil, O.R., Taylor, M.J., Collier, A.C., Marra, C.M., Gelman, B.B., McArthur, J.C., Morgello, S., Simpson, D.M., McCutchan, J.A., Abramson, I., Gamst, A., Fennema-Notestine, C., Jernigan, T.L., Wong, J., Grant, I., & Group, C. (2010). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders persist in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: CHARTER Study. Neurology, 75(23), 2087–2096.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heaton, R.K., Franklin, D.R. Jr., Deutsch, R., Letendre, S., Ellis, R.J., Casaletto, K., Marquine, M.J., Woods, S.P., Vaida, F., Atkinson, J.H., Marcotte, T.D., McCutchan, J.A., Collier, A.C., Marra, C.M., Clifford, D.B., Gelman, B.B., Sacktor, N., Morgello, S., Simpson, D.M., Abramson, I., Gamst, A.C., Fennema-Notestine, C., Smith, D.M., Grant, I., & Group, C. (2015). Neurocognitive change in the era of HIV combination antiretroviral therapy: the longitudinal CHARTER study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 60(3), 473–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heaton, R.K., Marcotte, T.D., Mindt, M.R., Sadek, J., Moore, D.J., Bentley, H., McCutchan, J.A., Reicks, C., Grant, I., & Group, H. (2004). The impact of HIV-associated neuropsychological impairment on everyday functioning. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10(3), 317–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helfer, M., Koppensteiner, H., Schneider, M., Rebensburg, S., Forcisi, S., Muller, C., Schmitt-Kopplin, P., Schindler, M., & Brack-Werner, R. (2014). The root extract of the medicinal plant Pelargonium sidoides is a potent HIV-1 attachment inhibitor. PLoS One, 9(1), e87487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hestad, K.A., Chinyama, J., Anitha, M.J., Ngoma, M.S., McCutchan, J.A., Franklin, D.R. Jr., & Heaton, R.K. (2019). Cognitive impairment in Zambians with HIV infection and pulmonary tuberculosis. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 80(1), 110–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoare, J., Fouche, J.P., Spottiswoode, B., Sorsdahl, K., Combrinck, M., Stein, D.J., Paul, R.H., & Joska, J.A. (2011). White-Matter damage in Clade C HIV-positive subjects: a diffusion tensor imaging study. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 23(3), 308–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hong, S. & Banks, W.A. (2015). Role of the immune system in HIV-associated neuroinflammation and neurocognitive implications. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 45, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
IndexMundi. (2018). Cameroon Demographics Profile 2018. World Fackbook, https://www.indexmundi.com/cameroon/demographics_profile.html.Google Scholar
Joska, J.A., Fincham, D.S., Stein, D.J., Paul, R.H., & Seedat, S. (2010). Clinical correlates of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in South Africa. AIDS Behaviour, 14(2), 371–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joska, J.A., Westgarth-Taylor, J., Myer, L., Hoare, J., Thomas, K.G., Combrinck, M., Paul, R.H., Stein, D.J., & Flisher, A.J. (2011). Characterization of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders among individuals starting antiretroviral therapy in South Africa. AIDS Behaviour, 15(6), 1197–1203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jumare, J., El-Kamary, S.S., Magder, L., Hungerford, L., Umlauf, A., Franklin, D., Ghate, M., Abimiku, A., Charurat, M., Letendre, S., Ellis, R.J., Mehendale, S., Blattner, W.A., Royal, W., Marcotte, T.D., Heaton, R.K., Grant, I., & McCutchan, J.A. (2019). Brief report: body mass index and cognitive function among HIV-1-infected individuals in China, India, and Nigeria. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 80(2), e30–e35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jumare, J., Ndembi, N., El-Kamary, S.S., Magder, L., Hungerford, L., Burdo, T., Eyzaguirre, L.M., Dakum, P., Umlauf, A., Cherner, M., Abimiku, A., Charurat, M., Blattner, W.A., & Royal, W.. (2018). Cognitive function among antiretroviral treatment-naive individuals infected with HIV-1 Subtype G versus CRF02_AG in Nigeria. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 66(9), 1448–1453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabuba, N., Anitha Menon, J., Franklin, D.R. Jr., Heaton, R.K., & Hestad, K.A. (2017). Use of Western Neuropsychological Test Battery in Detecting HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND) in Zambia. AIDS Behaviour, 21(6), 1717–1727.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahle, E.M., Kashuba, A., Baeten, J.M., Fife, K.H., Celum, C., Mujugira, A., Essex, M., De Bruyn, G., Wald, A., Donnell, D., John-Stewart, G., Delany-Moretlwe, S., Mugo, N.R., Farquhar, C., Lingappa, J.R., & Partners in Prevention, H.T.S.T. (2014). Unreported antiretroviral use by HIV-1-infected participants enrolling in a prospective research study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 65(2), e90–e94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamat, R., McCutchan, A., Kumarasamy, N., Marcotte, T.D., Umlauf, A., Selvamuthu, P., Meyer, R., Letendre, S., Heaton, R., & Bharti, A.R. (2017). Neurocognitive functioning among HIV-positive adults in southern India. Journal of NeuroVirology, 23(5), 750–755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanmogne, G.D., Fonsah, J.Y., Tang, B., Doh, R.F., Kengne, A.M., Umlauf, A., Tagny, C.T., Nchindap, E., Kenmogne, L., Franklin, D., Njamnshi, D.M., Mbanya, D., Njamnshi, A.K., & Heaton, R.K. (2018). Effects of HIV on executive function and verbal fluency in Cameroon. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 17794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanmogne, G.D., Kuate, C.T., Cysique, L.A., Fonsah, J.Y., Eta, S., Doh, R., Njamnshi, D.M., Nchindap, E., Franklin, D.R. Jr., Ellis, R.J., McCutchan, J.A., Binam, F., Mbanya, D., Heaton, R.K., & Njamnshi, A.K. (2010). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in sub-Saharan Africa: a pilot study in Cameroon. BMC Neurology, 10, 60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, A., Petrasca, A., Doherty, D.G., Hennessy, M., & Spiers, J.P. (2014). HIV-1 Tat clade-specific cytokine induction in monocytes/macrophages is not evidenced in total or Vgamma9Vdelta2 T lymphocytes. AIDS, 28(1), 131–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kujala, P., Portin, R., Revonsuo, A., & Ruutiainen, J. (1995). Attention related performance in two cognitively different subgroups of patients with multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 59(1), 77–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumar, A.M., Ownby, R.L., Waldrop-Valverde, D., Fernandez, B., & Kumar, M. (2011). Human immunodeficiency virus infection in the CNS and decreased dopamine availability: relationship with neuropsychological performance. Journal of NeuroVirology, 17(1), 26–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LANL. (2017). HIV and SIV Nomenclature. HIV sequence database. https://www.hiv.lanl.gov/content/sequence/HelpDocs/subtypes-more.html.Google Scholar
LANL. (2019). HIV Circulating Recombinant Forms (CRFs). HIV sequence database. http://www.hiv.lanl.gov/content/sequence/HIV/CRFs/CRFs.html.Google Scholar
Lawler, K., Jeremiah, K., Mosepele, M., Ratcliffe, S.J., Cherry, C., Seloilwe, E., & Steenhoff, A.P. (2011). Neurobehavioral effects in HIV-positive individuals receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in Gaborone, Botswana. PLoS One, 6(2), e17233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawler, K., Mosepele, M., Ratcliffe, S., Seloilwe, E., Steele, K., Nthobatsang, R., & Steenhoff, A. (2010). Neurocognitive impairment among HIV-positive individuals in Botswana: a pilot study. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 13, 15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leteane, M.M., Ngwenya, B.N., Muzila, M., Namushe, A., Mwinga, J., Musonda, R., Moyo, S., Mengestu, Y.B., Abegaz, B.M., & Andrae-Marobela, K. (2012). Old plants newly discovered: Cassia sieberiana D.C. and Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Oliv. root extracts inhibit in vitro HIV-1c replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by different modes of action. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 141(1), 48–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, A.J., Hinkin, C.H., Castellon, S.A., Mason, K.I., Lam, M.N., Perkins, A., Robinet, M., Longshore, D., Newton, T., Myers, H., Durvasula, R.S., & Hardy, D.J. (2005). Variations in patterns of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) adherence. AIDS Behaviour, 9(3), 355–362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lihana, R.W., Ssemwanga, D., Abimiku, A., & Ndembi, N. (2012). Update on HIV-1 diversity in Africa: a decade in review. AIDS Reviews, 14(2), 83–100.Google Scholar
Mabou Tagne, A., Biapa Nya, P.C., Tiotsia Tsapi, A., Edingue Essoh, A.K., Pembouong, G., Ngouadjeu Ngnintedem, M.A., Marino, F., & Cosentino, M. (2019). Determinants, prevalence and trend of use of medicinal plants among people living with HIV: a cross-sectional survey in Dschang, Cameroon. AIDS Behaviour, 23(8), 2088–2100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maki, P.M., Rubin, L.H., Valcour, V., Martin, E., Crystal, H., Young, M., Weber, K.M., Manly, J., Richardson, J., Alden, C., & Anastos, K. (2015). Cognitive function in women with HIV: findings from the Women’s Interagency HIV Study. Neurology, 84(3), 231–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malagurski, B., Bugarski Ignjatovic, V., Maric, D., Nikolasevic, Z., Mihic, L., & Brkic, S. (2018). Neurocognitive profile of HIV-positive adults on combined antiretroviral therapy: a single-centre study in Serbia. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 25(6), 513–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, E.M., Sullivan, T.S., Reed, R.A., Fletcher, T.A., Pitrak, D.L., Weddington, W., & Harrow, M. (2001). Auditory working memory in HIV-1 infection. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7(1), 20–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinson, N.A., Gupte, N., Msandiwa, R., Moulton, L.H., Barnes, G.L., Ram, M., Gray, G., Hoffmann, C., & Chaisson, R.E. (2014). CD4 and viral load dynamics in antiretroviral-naive HIV-infected adults from Soweto, South Africa: a prospective cohort. PLoS One, 9(5), e96369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marzinke, M.A., Clarke, W., Wang, L., Cummings, V., Liu, T.Y., Piwowar-Manning, E., Breaud, A., Griffith, S., Buchbinder, S., Shoptaw, S., del Rio, C., Magnus, M., Mannheimer, S., Fields, S.D., Mayer, K.H., Wheeler, D.P., Koblin, B.A., Eshleman, S.H., & Fogel, J.M. (2014). Nondisclosure of HIV status in a clinical trial setting: antiretroviral drug screening can help distinguish between newly diagnosed and previously diagnosed HIV infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 58(1), 117–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mbaveng, A.T., Kuete, V., Mapunya, B.M., Beng, V.P., Nkengfack, A.E., Meyer, J.J., & Lall, N. (2011). Evaluation of four Cameroonian medicinal plants for anticancer, antigonorrheal and antireverse transcriptase activities. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 32(2), 162–167.Google ScholarPubMed
Mindel, A. & Tenant-Flowers, M. (2001). ABC of AIDS: natural history and management of early HIV infection. BMJ, 322(7297), 1290–1293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mogambery, J.C., Dawood, H., Wilson, D., & Moodley, A. (2017). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder in a KwaZulu-Natal HIV clinic: a prospective study. Southern African Journal of HIV Medicine, 18(1), 732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, E.E., Woods, S.P., Weber, E., Dawson, M.S., Carey, C.L., Moran, L.M., Grant, I., & Group, H.I.V.N.R.C. (2009). HIV-associated episodic memory impairment: evidence of a possible differential deficit in source memory for complex visual stimuli. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 21(2), 189–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakku, J., Kinyanda, E., & Hoskins, S. (2013). Prevalence and factors associated with probable HIV dementia in an African population: a cross-sectional study of an HIV/AIDS clinic population. BMC Psychiatry, 13, 126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichols, S.L., Bethel, J., Kapogiannis, B.G., Li, T., Woods, S.P., Patton, E.D., Ren, W., Thornton, S.E., Major-Wilson, H.O., Puga, A.M., Sleasman, J.W., Rudy, B.J., Wilson, C.M., Garvie, P.A., & Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for, H.I.V.A.I. (2016). Antiretroviral treatment initiation does not differentially alter neurocognitive functioning over time in youth with behaviorally acquired HIV. Journal of NeuroVirology, 22(2), 218–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Njamnshi, A.K., Bissek, A.C., Ongolo-Zogo, P., Tabah, E.N., Lekoubou, A.Z., Yepnjio, F.N., Fonsah, J.Y., Kuate, C.T., Angwafor, S.A., Dema, F., Njamnshi, D.M., Kouanfack, C., Djientcheu Vde, P., Muna, W.F., & Kanmogne, G.D. (2009). Risk factors for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) in sub-Saharan Africa: the case of Yaounde-Cameroon. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 285(1–2), 149–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Njamnshi, A.K., Djientcheu Vde, P., Fonsah, J.Y., Yepnjio, F.N., Njamnshi, D.M., & Muna, W.E. (2008). The International HIV Dementia Scale is a useful screening tool for HIV-associated dementia/cognitive impairment in HIV-infected adults in Yaounde-Cameroon. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 49(4), 393–397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Jile, J.R., Ryan, L.M., Betz, B., Parks-Levy, J., Hilsabeck, R.C., Rhudy, J.L., & Gouvier, W.D. (2006). Information processing following mild head injury. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21(4), 293–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obermeit, L.C., Morgan, E.E., Casaletto, K.B., Grant, I., Woods, S.P., & Group, H.I.V.N.R.P. (2015). Antiretroviral non-adherence is associated with a retrieval profile of deficits in verbal episodic memory. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(2), 197–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odaibo, G.N., Adewole, I.F., & Olaleye, D.O. (2013). High rate of non-detectable HIV-1 RNA among antiretroviral drug naive HIV positive individuals in Nigeria. Virology (Auckl), 4, 35–40.Google ScholarPubMed
Ortega, M., Heaps, J.M., Joska, J., Vaida, F., Seedat, S., Stein, D.J., Paul, R., & Ances, B.M. (2013). HIV clades B and C are associated with reduced brain volumetrics. Journal of NeuroVirology, 19(5), 479–487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, R.H., Phillips, S., Hoare, J., Laidlaw, D.H., Cabeen, R., Olbricht, G.R., Su, Y., Stein, D.J., Engelbrecht, S., Seedat, S., Salminen, L.E., Baker, L.M., Heaps, J., & Joska, J. (2017). Neuroimaging abnormalities in clade C HIV are independent of Tat genetic diversity. Journal of NeuroVirology, 23(2), 319–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prevey, M.L., Delaney, R.C., Cramer, J.A., & Mattson, R.H. (1998). Complex partial and secondarily generalized seizure patients: cognitive functioning prior to treatment with antiepileptic medication. VA Epilepsy Cooperative Study 264 Group. Epilepsy Research, 30(1), 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ranga, U., Shankarappa, R., Siddappa, N.B., Ramakrishna, L., Nagendran, R., Mahalingam, M., Mahadevan, A., Jayasuryan, N., Satishchandra, P., Shankar, S.K., & Prasad, V.R. (2004). Tat protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype C strains is a defective chemokine. Journal of Virology, 78(5), 2586–2590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, V.R., Neogi, U., Talboom, J.S., Padilla, L., Rahman, M., Fritz-French, C., Gonzalez-Ramirez, S., Verma, A., Wood, C., Ruprecht, R.M., Ranga, U., Azim, T., Joska, J., Eugenin, E., Shet, A., Bimonte-Nelson, H., Tyor, W.R., & Prasad, V.R. (2013). Clade C HIV-1 isolates circulating in Southern Africa exhibit a greater frequency of dicysteine motif-containing Tat variants than those in Southeast Asia and cause increased neurovirulence. Retrovirology, 10, 61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, V.R., Sas, A.R., Eugenin, E.A., Siddappa, N.B., Bimonte-Nelson, H., Berman, J.W., Ranga, U., Tyor, W.R., & Prasad, V.R. (2008). HIV-1 clade-specific differences in the induction of neuropathogenesis. Journal of Neuroscience, 28(40), 10010–10016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reger, M., Welsh, R., Razani, J., Martin, D.J., & Boone, K.B. (2002). A meta-analysis of the neuropsychological sequelae of HIV infection. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(3), 410–424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rieu, D., Bachoud-Levi, A.C., Laurent, A., Jurion, E., & Dalla Barba, G. (2006). French adaptation of the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test. Revue Neurologique (Paris), 162(6–7), 721–728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, D.L., Anderson, J.P., Bradac, JA, Carr, JK, Foley, B, Funkhouser, R.K., Gao, F., Hahn, B.H., Kalish, M.L., Kuiken, C., Learn, G.H., Leitner, T., McCutchan, F., Osmanov, S., Peeters, M., Pieniazek, D., Salminen, M., Sharp, P.M., Wolinsky, S., & Korber, B. (2000). HIV-1 nomenclature proposal. Science, 288, 55–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, K., Jiang, H., Evans, S.R., Marra, C.M., Berzins, B., Hakim, J., Sacktor, N., Silva, M.T., Campbell, T.B., Nair, A., Schouten, J., Kumwenda, J., Supparatpinyo, K., Tripathy, S., Kumarasamy, N., la Rosa, A., Montano, S., Mwafongo, A., Firnhaber, C., Sanne, I., Naini, L., Amod, F., Walawander, A., & Group, A.C.T. (2016). International neurocognitive normative study: neurocognitive comparison data in diverse resource-limited settings: AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5271. Journal of NeuroVirology, 22(4), 472–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, K., Maruff, P., Ross, L.L., Wohl, D., Small, C.B., Edelstein, H., & Shaefer, M.S. (2019). Similar neurocognitive outcomes after 48 weeks in HIV-1-infected participants randomized to continue tenofovir/emtricitabine + atazanavir/ritonavir or simplify to abacavir/lamivudine + atazanavir. Journal of NeuroVirology, 25(1), 22–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, K.R., Nakasujja, N., Wong, M., Musisi, S., Katabira, E., Parsons, T.D., Ronald, A., & Sacktor, N. (2007). Pattern of neuropsychological performance among HIV positive patients in Uganda. BMC Neurology, 7, 8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, K.R., Smurzynski, M., Parsons, T.D., Wu, K., Bosch, R.J., Wu, J., McArthur, J.C., Collier, A.C., Evans, S.R., & Ellis, R.J. (2007). The prevalence and incidence of neurocognitive impairment in the HAART era. AIDS, 21(14), 1915–1921.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Royal, W., Cherner, M., Carr, J., Habib, A.G., Akomolafe, A., Abimiku, A., Charurat, M., Farley, J., Oluyemisi, A., Mamadu, I., Johnson, J., Ellis, R., McCutchan, J.A., Grant, I., & Blattner, W.A. (2012). Clinical features and preliminary studies of virological correlates of neurocognitive impairment among HIV-infected individuals in Nigeria. Journal of NeuroVirology, 18(3), 191–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Royston, P. & Altman, D.G. (1994). Regression using fractional polynomials of continuous covariates: parsimonious parametric modelling. Applied Statistics, 43(3), 429–467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, L.H., Cook, J.A., Weber, K.M., Cohen, M.H., Martin, E., Valcour, V., Milam, J., Anastos, K., Young, M.A., Alden, C., Gustafson, D.R., & Maki, P.M. (2015). The association of perceived stress and verbal memory is greater in HIV-infected versus HIV-uninfected women. Journal of NeuroVirology, 21(4), 422–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, L.H., Maki, P.M., Springer, G., Benning, L., Anastos, K., Gustafson, D., Villacres, M.C., Jiang, X., Adimora, A.A., Waldrop-Valverde, D., Vance, D.E., Bolivar, H., Alden, C., Martin, E.M., Valcour, V.G., & Women’s Interagency, H.I.V.S. (2017). Cognitive trajectories over 4 years among HIV-infected women with optimal viral suppression. Neurology, 89(15), 1594–1603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sabin, C.A. & Lundgren, J.D. (2013). The natural history of HIV infection. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, 8(4), 311–317.Google ScholarPubMed
Sacktor, N., Saylor, D., Nakigozi, G., Nakasujja, N., Robertson, K., Grabowski, M.K., Kisakye, A., Batte, J., Mayanja, R., Anok, A., Gray, R.H., & Wawer, M.J. (2019). Effect of HIV subtype and antiretroviral therapy on HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder stage in Rakai, Uganda. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 81(2), 216–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salawu, F.K., Bwala, S.A., Wakil, M.A., Bani, B., Bukbuk, D.N., & Kida, I. (2008). Cognitive function in HIV-seropositive Nigerians without AIDS. Journal of Neurology Science, 267(1–2), 142–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saloner, R. & Cysique, L.A. (2017). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders: a global perspective. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 23(9–10), 860–869.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satishchandra, P., Nalini, A., Gourie-Devi, M., Khanna, N., Santosh, V., Ravi, V., Desai, A., Chandramuki, A., Jayakumar, P.N., & Shankar, S.K. (2000). Profile of neurologic disorders associated with HIV/AIDS from Bangalore, south India (1989–96). Indian Journal of Medical Research, 111, 14–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Spies, G., Fennema-Notestine, C., Archibald, S.L., Cherner, M., & Seedat, S. (2012). Neurocognitive deficits in HIV-infected women and victims of childhood trauma. AIDS Care, 24(9), 1126–1135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, A.K., Savage, E.J., Lowndes, C.M., Paul, G., Murphy, G., Carne, S., Back, D.J., & Gill, O.N. (2013). Non-disclosure of HIV status in UK sexual health clinics -- a pilot study to identify non-disclosure within a national unlinked anonymous seroprevalence survey. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 89(2), 120–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teto, G., Fonsah, J.Y., Tagny, C.T., Mbanya, D., Nchindap, E., Kenmogne, L., Fokam, J., Njamnshi, D.M., Kouanfack, C., Njamnshi, A.K., & Kanmogne, G.D. (2016). Molecular and genetic characterization of HIV-1 Tat Exon-1 gene from Cameroon shows conserved Tat HLA-binding epitopes: functional implications. Viruses, 8(7), 196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teto, G., Tagny, C.T., Mbanya, D., Fonsah, J.Y., Fokam, J., Nchindap, E., Kenmogne, L., Njamnshi, A.K., & Kanmogne, G.D. (2017). Gag P2/NC and pol genetic diversity, polymorphism, and drug resistance mutations in HIV-1 CRF02_AG- and non-CRF02_AG-infected patients in Yaounde, Cameroon. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 14136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tietjen, I., Ntie-Kang, F., Mwimanzi, P., Onguene, P.A., Scull, M.A., Idowu, T.O., Ogundaini, A.O., Meva’a, L.M., Abegaz, B.M., Rice, C.M., Andrae-Marobela, K., Brockman, M.A., Brumme, Z.L., & Fedida, D. (2015). Screening of the Pan-African natural product library identifies ixoratannin A-2 and boldine as novel HIV-1 inhibitors. PLoS One, 10(4), e0121099.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tilghman, M.W., Bhattacharya, J., Deshpande, S., Ghate, M., Espitia, S., Grant, I., Marcotte, T.D., Smith, D., & Mehendale, S. (2014). Genetic attributes of blood-derived subtype-C HIV-1 tat and env in India and neurocognitive function. Journal of Medical Virology, 86(1), 88–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
UNAIDS. (2016). Country factsheets: CAMEROON 2016 HIV and AIDS estimates. http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/cameroon/.Google Scholar
Valcour, V., Yee, P., Williams, A.E., Shiramizu, B., Watters, M., Selnes, O., Paul, R., Shikuma, C., & Sacktor, N. (2006). Lowest ever CD4 lymphocyte count (CD4 nadir) as a predictor of current cognitive and neurological status in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection -- The Hawaii Aging with HIV Cohort. Journal of NeuroVirology, 12(5), 387–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Venner, C.M., Nankya, I., Kyeyune, F., Demers, K., Kwok, C., Chen, P.L., Rwambuya, S., Munjoma, M., Chipato, T., Byamugisha, J., Van Der Pol, B., Mugyenyi, P., Salata, R.A., Morrison, C.S., & Arts, E.J. (2016). Infecting HIV-1 subtype predicts disease progression in women of sub-Saharan Africa. EBioMedicine, 13, 305–314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, M., Wang, Q., Ding, H., & Shang, H. (2015). Association of hippocampal magnetic resonance imaging with learning and memory deficits in HIV-1-seropositive patients. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 70(4), 436–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Memory Scale – Third Edition. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
WHO. (2016). Global Health Sector Strategy on HIV 2016-2021: Towards Ending AIDS. World Health Organization, http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/246178/WHO-HIV-2016.05-eng.pdf;jsessionid=6624B3EED4E6186B44D2FB1ABA95A1A3?sequence=1.Google Scholar
Wilde, N.J., Strauss, E., & Tulsky, D.S. (2004). Memory span on the Wechsler Scales. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26(4), 539–549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woods, S.P., Moore, D.J., Weber, E., & Grant, I. (2009). Cognitive neuropsychology of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neuropsychology Review, 19(2), 152–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woods, S.P., Scott, J.C., Dawson, M.S., Morgan, E.E., Carey, C.L., Heaton, R.K., Grant, I., & Group, H.I.V.N.R.C. (2005). Construct validity of Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-revised component process measures in an HIV-1 sample. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(8), 1061–1071.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woollard, S.M., Bhargavan, B., Yu, F., & Kanmogne, G.D. (2014). Differential effects of Tat proteins derived from HIV-1 subtypes B and recombinant CRF02_AG on human brain microvascular endothelial cells: implications for blood-brain barrier dysfunction. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, 34(6), 1047–1059.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, B., Akhter, S., Chaudhuri, A., & Kanmogne, G.D. (2009). HIV-1 gp120 induces cytokine expression, leukocyte adhesion, and transmigration across the blood-brain barrier: modulatory effects of STAT1 signaling. Microvascular Research, 77(2), 212–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yechoor, N., Towe, S.L., Robertson, K.R., Westreich, D., Nakasujja, N., & Meade, C.S. (2016). Utility of a brief computerized battery to assess HIV-associated neurocognitive impairment in a resource-limited setting. Journal of NeuroVirology, 22(6), 808–815.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yndart, A., Kaushik, A., Agudelo, M., Raymond, A., Atluri, V.S., Saxena, S.K., & Nair, M. (2015). Investigation of neuropathogenesis in HIV-1 Clade B and C infection associated with IL-33 and ST2 regulation. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 6(9), 1600–1612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yusuf, A.J., Hassan, A., Mamman, A.I., Muktar, H.M., Suleiman, A.M., & Baiyewu, O. (2017). Prevalence of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder (HAND) among patients attending a tertiary health facility in Northern Nigeria. Journal of the International Association of Providers of AIDS Care, 16(1), 48–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed