Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-x5gtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-05T18:25:29.565Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Who's Running the Road? Street Railway Strikes and the Problem of Constructing a Liberal Capitalist Order in Canada, 1886–1914

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 December 2018

Eric Tucker
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Street railway strikes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were frequently the occasion for large‐scale collective violence in North American cities and challenged the capacity of local authorities to maintain civic order. However, this was only the most visible manifestation of the challenge that street railway workers' collective action posed to the order of liberal capitalism, an order constructed on several intersecting dimensions. Using the example of Canadian street railway workers from 1886 to 1914, a period of rapid urbanization and industrialization, this article explores the ways the collective action by workers and their community sympathizers challenged the workplace, marketplace, and “streetplace” orders of liberal capitalism. It discusses how those challenges were met through political and legal processes of resistance and accommodation, taking into account the fragmentation of state power, hostile public opinion toward the street railways, and conflicting views over the legitimate scope for workers' collective action.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 35 , Issue 2 , Spring 2010 , pp. 451 - 485
Copyright
Copyright © American Bar Foundation, 2010 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Armstrong, Christopher, and Nelles, H. V. 1986. Monopoly's Moment. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Atherton, James J. 1972. The Department of Labour and Industrial Relations 1900–1911. MA Thesis, Department of History, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario.Google Scholar
Babcock, Robert H. 1982. The Saint John Street Railwaymen's Strike and Riot, 1914. Acadiensis 11 (2): 3–27.Google Scholar
Babcock, Robert H. 1994. “Will You Walk? Yes, We'll Walk!” Popular Support for a Street Railway Strike in Portland, Maine. Labor History 35:372–98.Google Scholar
British Columbia Legislative Assembly. 1895. Report of the Commission of Labour Enquiry, Board of Conciliation and Arbitration, 589–94. Sessional Papers. Victoria, BC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Brody, David. 1993. In Labor's Cause. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Canadian House of Commons. 19061907. House of Commons Debates. Ottawa: Queen's Publisher.Google Scholar
Cheape, Charles W. 1980. Moving the Masses. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Cotton's Weekly. 1913. Masters Shooting Their Slaves in Port Arthur. Cotton's Weekly, May 22, 3.Google Scholar
Courtwright, David T. 1996. Violent Land: Single Men and Social Disorder from the Frontier to the Inner City. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Craven, Paul. 1980. An Impartial Umpire: Industrial Relations and the Canadian State 1900–1911. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Davis, Donald F. 1979. Mass Transit and Private Ownership: An Alternative Perspective on the Case of Toronto. Urban History Review 3:60–98.Google Scholar
De Sousa Santos, Boaventura. 2002. Toward a New Legal Common Sense, 2nd ed. London: Butterworths.Google Scholar
Emmons, C. D. 1911. The Relations of the Electric Railway Company with Its Employes [sic]. Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science 37 (1): 88–92.Google Scholar
Enjolras [Phillips Thompson]. 1886. Labor Outbreaks. Palladium of Labor, April 3, 1.Google Scholar
Fink, Leon. 1983. Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Fogelson, Robert M. 2001. Downtown: Its Rise and Fall, 1880–1950. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Fudge, Judy and Eric, Tucker. 2001. Labour before the Law: Workers' Collective Action and the Canadian State, 1900–1948. Toronto: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fyson, Donald. 2009. The Trials and Tribulations of Riot Prosecutions: Collective Violence, State Authority, and Criminal Justice in Quebec, 1841–92. In Canadian State Trials, Vol. III, ed. Wright, Barry and Binnie, Susan, 161–203. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Gilmour, Ian. 1993. Riot, Risings and Revolution: Governance and Violence in Eighteenth‐Century England. London: Pimlico.Google Scholar
Goheen, Peter G. 1994. Negotiating Access to Public Space in Mid‐Nineteenth Century Toronto. Journal of Historical Geography 20 (4): 430–49.Google Scholar
Gutman, Herbert G. 1976. Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Halifax Herald. 1913. “Rioters for Time in Partial Control at Halifax but Law and Order Must Be Maintained. Halifax Herald, May 17, 1.Google Scholar
Hamilton Spectator. 1906a. Wild Mob Was in Complete Control. Hamilton Spectator, November 24, 1.Google Scholar
Hamilton Spectator. 1906b. Mob and Military Clash. Hamilton Spectator, November 26, 1, 3–4.Google Scholar
Hamilton Spectator. 1906c. The Police. Hamilton Spectator, November 26, 6.Google Scholar
Harring, Sidney. 1986. Car Wars: Strikes, Arbitration, and Class Struggle in the Making of Labor Law. New York University Review Law & Social Change 14:849–72.Google Scholar
Hay, Douglas. 1992. Time, Inequality and Law's Violence. In Law's Violence, ed. Sarat, Austin and Kearns, Thomas R., 141–73. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Henry, Sarah M. 1991. The Strikers and Their Sympathizers: Brooklyn in the Trolley Strike of 1895. Labor History 32 (3): 329–53.Google Scholar
Heron, Craig. Forthcoming. The Workers' City: The Remaking of Working‐Class Hamilton, 1880–1940.Google Scholar
Heron, Craig, and Penfold, Steve. 2005. The Workers' Festival: A History of Labour Day in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
High, Steven. 1997. Planting the Municipal Ownership Idea in Port Arthur. Urban History Review 26 (1): 3–17.Google Scholar
Industrial Banner. 1899. Terrorism! Industrial Banner, July 1.Google Scholar
Karsten, Peter. 2002. Between Law and Custom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kealey, Gregory S. 1980. Toronto Workers Respond to Industrial Capitalism 1867–1892. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Kealey, Gregory S., and Palmer, Bryan D. 1982. Dreaming of What Might Be: The Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kidder, Robert L. 1997. Justice and Power in Studies of Legal Pluralism. In Justice and Power in Sociolegal Studies, ed. Garth, Bryant G. and Sarat, Austin, 194–232. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Korneski, Kurt. 2007. Britishness, Canadianness, Class, and Race: Winnipeg and the British World, 1880s–1910s. Journal of Canadian Studies 41 (2): 161–84.Google Scholar
Kostal, R. W. 1999. Conservative Insurrection: Great Strikes and Deep Law in Cleveland, Ohio and London, Ontario, 1898–1899. In Essays in the History of Canadian Law, Vol. 8, ed. Blaine Baker, G. and Phillips, Jim, 289–334. Toronto: Osgoode Society.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1902. Strike of Toronto Street Railway Employees. Labour Gazette, July, 35–39.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1903a. Labour Gazette, May, 828.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1903b. Agreement between the Toronto Railway Company and Its Employees. Labour Gazette, June, 1020–23.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1903c. Strike of Montreal Street Railway Employees. Labour Gazette, June, 1029–31.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1903d. The Railway Labour Disputes Act, 1903. Labour Gazette, August, 136–39.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1903e. Montreal Street Railway Mutual Benefit Association. Labour Gazette, October, 343–45.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1904. Agreement of the Toronto Railway Company with Its Employees. Labour Gazette, July, 71–73.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1905. Settlement of Street Railway Strike at Cornwall, Ont.,under Conciliation Act. Labour Gazette, August 174–75.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1906a. Strike of Street Railway Employees at Winnipeg, Man. Labour Gazette, April, 1155–56.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1906b. Trade Disputes during the Month of April. Labour Gazette, May, 1265–66.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1906c. Strike of Street Railway Employees at London, Ont. Labour Gazette, September, 297.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1906d. Opinion of Ontario Railway and Municipal Board. Labour Gazette, September, 318–19.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1906e. Recent Industrial Arbitrations and Agreements. Labour Gazette, October, 430–32.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1906f. Strike of Street Railway Employees at Levis, Que. Labour Gazette, November, 561.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1907a. Award of Ontario Railway and Municipal Board re Strike of Street Railway Employees, at Hamilton, Ont. Labour Gazette, January, 794–99.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1907b. Recent Industrial Agreements. Labour Gazette, August, 211–12.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1908a. Arbitration of Dispute between Toronto Railway Company and Employees. Labour Gazette, January, 836–37.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1908b. The Hamilton Street Railway Dispute—Text of Board's Report—Mr. O'Donogue Dissents. Labour Gazette, May, 1336–41.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1908c. Settlement of Differences between the Ottawa Electric Railway Company and Its Employees. Labour Gazette, July, 51–53.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1908d. Settlement of Differences between the Quebec Heat, Light & Power Company and Its Street Railway Employees. Labour Gazette, November, 504–06.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1909. Agreement between Hamilton Street Railway Co and Its Employees. Labour Gazette, April, 1126–27.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1910. Report of Board in Dispute between the Toronto Street Railway Company and Its Employés. Labour Gazette, September, 320–25.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1911a. Condition of Local Industries. Labour Gazette, January, 736–37.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1911b. Disputes of Garment Workers and Cap Workers at Winnipeg, Man. Labour Gazette, January, 808.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1911c. Labour Gazette, February, 899–900.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1912a. Settlement of Dispute between the Ottawa Electric Railway Company and Its Employees. Labour Gazette, July, 34–38.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1912b. Toronto Street Railway Employees. Labour Gazette, September, 262–64.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1913a. Report of Board in Dispute between the Quebec Railway, Light, Heat and Power Company and Street Railway Employees. Labour Gazette, January, 731–32.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1913b. Report of Board in Dispute between the Cities of Port Arthur and Fort William and Employees in Street Railway Service. Labour Gazette, January, 733–35.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1913c. Agreement between the Hamilton Street Railway Company and the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees of America, Division No. 107 of Hamilton, Ontario. Labour Gazette, January, 770–71.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1913d. Reports of Board in Dispute between the British Columbia Electric Railway Company and Employees, Members of the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees of America. Labour Gazette, September, 268–302.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1913e. Street Railway Employees, Halifax. Labour Gazette, June, 1420.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1913f. Street Railway Employees, Port Arthur and Fort William. Labour Gazette, July, 90.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1914a. Report of Board in Dispute between the St. John Railway Company and Its Motormen, Conductors, Linemen, etc. Labour Gazette, August, 199–200.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1914b. Settlement of Dispute between the Ottawa Electric Railway Company and Its Employees. Labour Gazette, August, 201.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1914c. Private Detective Agencies. Labour Gazette, October, 480–81.Google Scholar
Labour Gazette. 1915. Electric Street Railway Legislation. Labour Gazette, June, 1420–22.Google Scholar
Lambly, Peter D. 1983. Working Conditions and Industrial Relations on Canada's Street Railways, 1900–1920. MA Thesis, Department of History, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.Google Scholar
Levinson, Edward. 1935. I Break Strikes! New York: Robert M. McBride.Google Scholar
Lord, Kathleen. 2005. Permissible Boundaries: Negotiation, Resistance, and Transgression of Street Space in Saint‐Henri, Quebec, 1875–1905. Urban History Review 32 (2): 17–30.Google Scholar
Luff, Jennifer. 2008. Surrogate Supervisors: Railway Spotters and the Origins of Workplace Surveillance. Labor: Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas 5 (1): 47–74.Google Scholar
Martin, William. 1954. A Study of Legislation Designed to Foster Industrial Peace in Common Law Jurisdiction of Canada. PhD Thesis, University of Toronto.Google Scholar
McCallum, Margaret E. 1990. The Mines Arbitration Act, 1888: Compulsory Arbitration in Context. In Essays in the History of Canadian Law. Vol. 3, Nova Scotia, ed. Girard, Philip and Phillips, Jim, 303–25. Toronto: Osgoode Society.Google Scholar
McCallum, Margaret E. 1991. Labour and Arbitration in the Mowat Era. Canadian Journal of Law and Society 6:65–90.Google Scholar
McKay, Ian. 2000. The Liberal Order Framework: A Prospectus for a Reconnaissance of Canadian History. Canadian Historical Review 81 (4): 617–45.Google Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle. 1988. Legal Pluralism. Law and Society Review 22 (5): 869–96.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Richard. 1990. Solving the Great Social Problem of the Age: A Comparison of the Development of State Systems of Conciliation and Arbitration in Australia and Canada, 1870–1910. In Canadian and Australian Labour History, ed. Kealey, Gregory S. and Patmore, Greg, 47–80. Sydney: Australian Society for the Study of Labour History.Google Scholar
Molloy, Scott. 1996. Trolley Wars. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Monetary Times. 1886a. The Street Railway Troubles. Monetary Times, March 12, 1040–41.Google Scholar
Monetary Times. 1886b. The Situation. Monetary Times, May 14, 1293.Google Scholar
Monetary Times. 1899. The Street Railway Strike. Monetary Times, August 11, 171.Google Scholar
Montreal, Gazette. 1903a. A General Movement. Montreal Gazette, February 9, 6.Google Scholar
Montreal, Gazette. 1903b. The Police. Montreal Gazette, May 25, 6.Google Scholar
Montreal, Gazette. 1903c. Much Rioting. Montreal Gazette, May 25, 11.Google Scholar
Montreal, Gazette. 1903d. Strikers Quiet. Montreal Gazette, May 26, 5.Google Scholar
Montreal, Gazette. 1903e. Lessons of the Strike. Montreal Gazette, May 29, 6.Google Scholar
Morning Herald. 1913a. Mike Smorak Falls with Bullet through Head. Morning Herald, May 12, 1.Google Scholar
Morning Herald. 1913b. The Riot. Morning Herald, May 13, 2.Google Scholar
Morrison, Jean F. 1974. Community and Conflict: A Study of the Working Class and Its Relationships at the Canadian Lakehead, 1903–1913. MA Thesis, Department of History, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario.Google Scholar
Morrison, Jean F. 1976. Ethnicity and Violence: The Lakehead Freight Handlers before World War I. In Essays in Canadian Working Class History, ed. Kealey, Gregory S. and Warrian, Peter, 143–60. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.Google Scholar
Morton, Desmond. 1970. Aid to the Civil Power: The Canadian Militia in Support of Social Order, 1867–1914. Canadian Historical Review 51 (4): 407–25.Google Scholar
Morton, Desmond. 1975. Mayor Howland. Toronto: Hakkert.Google Scholar
Motorman & Conductor. 1899. Company Seeks to Evade the Law. Motorman and Conductor April, 577–78.Google Scholar
Motorman & Conductor. 1911. Winnipeg Strike. Motorman & Conductor 19 (2): 21–22.Google Scholar
Norwood, Stephen H. 2002. Strikebreaking and Intimidation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Olson, Sherry. 1991. The Evolution of Metropolitan Form. In Canadian Cities in Transition, ed. Bunting, Trudi and Filion, Pierre, 240–62. Toronto: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
O'Brien, W. E. 1905. Labour Legislation. Canada Law Journal, 41 (20): 729–33.Google Scholar
Ottawa Journal. 1913. Mob Violence at Fort William. Ottawa Journal, May 13.Google Scholar
Palmer, Brian D. 1976. “Give Us the Road and We Will Run It”: The Social and Cultural Matrix of an Emerging Labour Movement. In Essays in Canadian Working Class History, ed. Kealey, Gregory S. and Warrian, Peter, 106–24. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.Google Scholar
Palmer, Brian D. 1979. A Culture in Conflict. Montreal: McGill‐Queen's University Press.Google Scholar
Palmer, Brian D. 1992. Working‐Class Experience. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.Google Scholar
Reimer, Chad. 1993. War, Nationhood and Working‐Class Entitlement: The Counter‐Hegemonic Challenge of the 1919 Winnipeg General Strike. Prairie Forum 18:219–37.Google Scholar
Riddell, William Renwick. 1921. Labor Legislation in Canada. Minnesota Law Review 5:83–93.Google Scholar
Roy, Patricia. 1972 –1973. The B.C.E.R. and Its Street Railway Employees. BC Studies 16:3–24.Google Scholar
Russell, Bob. 1990. Back to Work? Toronto: Nelson.Google Scholar
Ryan, Mary P. 1997. Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City during the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Saint John Globe. 1914. Soldiers Are Coming Here from Halifax to Maintain Order. Saint John Globe, July 24, 1.Google Scholar
Schmidt, Emerson P. 1937. Industrial Relations in Urban Transport. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
See, Scott W. 1997. Nineteenth‐Century Collective Violence: Toward a North American Context. Labour/Le Travail 39:13–38.Google Scholar
Sinclair, Arthur H. 1891. The Toronto Street Railway. Quarterly Journal of Economics 6 (1): 98–105.Google Scholar
Smith, Robert Michael. 2003. From Blackjacks to Briefcases. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Squires, Benjamin. 1918. Operation of the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act of Canada. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Strong‐Boag, Veronica. 2002. The Citizenship Debates: The 1885 Franchise Act . In Contesting Canadian Citizenship, ed. Adamoski, Robert, Chunn, Dorothy E., and Menzies, Robert, 69–94. Toronto: Broadview Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, E. P. 1971. The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century. Past and Present 50:76–136.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 1993. Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain. Social Science History 17 (2): 253–80.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 2003. The Politics of Collective Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 2008. Contentious Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Toronto City Council Minutes 1903. 1904. Appendix C: Annual Report of the Chief Constable for the Year 1902. Toronto: Carswell.Google Scholar
Toronto Globe. 1902a. The Railway Trouble. Toronto Globe, June 20, 6.Google Scholar
Toronto Globe. 1902b. The Strike and Public Order. Toronto Globe, June 23, 6.Google Scholar
Toronto Globe. 1902c. The Street Car Settlement. Toronto Globe, June 24, 6.Google Scholar
Toronto Globe. 1902d. Meet Force with Force. Toronto Globe, June 27, 10.Google Scholar
Toronto Globe. 1902e. Police and Militia. Toronto Globe, June 28, 6.Google Scholar
Toronto Globe. 1906. The Crowd‐Spirit and the Man. Toronto Globe, December 22, 8.Google Scholar
Toronto Globe. 1912. Street Railways Would Be Inconvenienced. Toronto Globe, April 5, 9.Google Scholar
Toronto Railway Company. 1902. Rules and Regulations for Motormen and Conductors. Toronto: Imrie Graham & Co.Google Scholar
Torrance, Judy. 1986. Public Violence in Canada. Montreal: McGill‐Queen's University Press.Google Scholar
Trades and Labour Congress of Canada. Proceedings. Annual Convention of the Trades and Labour Congress, Toronto. 1899.Google Scholar
Tucker, Eric. 1990. Administering Danger. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Tucker, Eric. 1994. The Faces of Coercion: The Legal Regulation of Labor Conflict in Ontario, 1880–1889. Law and History Review 12 (2): 277–339.Google Scholar
Tucker, Eric. 2009. Street Railway Strikes, Collective Violence and the Canadian State, 1886–1914. In Canadian State Trials, vol. 3, ed. Wright, Barry and Binnie, Susan, 257–93. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Tucker, Eric, and Fudge, Judy. 1996. Forging Responsible Unions: Metal Workers and the Rise of the Labour Injunction in Canada. Labour/Le Travail 37:81–120.Google Scholar
Warner, Sam B. Jr. 1962. Streetcar Suburbs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Weaver, John C. 1990. Social Control, Martial Conformity, and Community Entanglement: The Varied Beat of the Hamilton Police Force, 1895–1920. Urban History Review 19 (2): 113–27.Google Scholar
Webber, Jeremy. 1988a. Living Wage and Living Profit: Wage Determination by Conciliation Boards under the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act, 1907–1925. In Canadian Perspectives on Law and Society: Issues in Law and History, ed. Wesley Pue, W. and Wright, Barry, 207–42. Ottawa: Carleton University Press.Google Scholar
Webber, Jeremy. 1988b. Standards of Industrial Justice: Ideology and the Reports of Conciliation Boards under the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act, 1907–1925. LLM Thesis, Osgoode Hall Law School, York University, Toronto, Ontario.Google Scholar
Webber, Jeremy. 1991. Compelling Compromise: Canada Chooses Conciliation over Arbitration 1900–1907. Labour/Le Travail 28:15–57.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906a. Men Deplore Violence. Winnipeg Free Press, March 30, 11.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906b. Our Disorderly Special Constables. Winnipeg Free Press, March 31, 4.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906c. Christiansen Arrested. Winnipeg Free Press, April 2, 1.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906d. Magistrate M'Micken Summarily Suspended. Winnipeg Free Press, April 2, 7.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906e. Received Heavy Sentence. Winnipeg Free Press, April 3, 7.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906f. Blames the Company. Winnipeg Free Press, April 3, 11.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906g. Street Cars in Britain. Winnipeg Free Press, April 6, 4.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906h. The Settlement of the Strike. Winnipeg Free Press, April 9, 4.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1906i. Cost of Strike! Winnipeg Free Press, April 9, 11.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1910a. Striker Fined. Winnipeg Free Press, December 19, 17.Google Scholar
Winnipeg Free Press. 1910b. Strike Riot at Fort Rouge Barns. Winnipeg Free Press, December 21, 1.Google Scholar
Ziegler, Robert E. 1977. The Limits of Power: The Amalgamated Association of Street Railway Employees in Houston, Texas, 1897–1905. Labor History 18:71–90.Google Scholar

Federal:

Alien Labour Act, S.C. 1897, c. 11.Google Scholar
Conciliation Act, S.C. 1900, c. 24.Google Scholar
Railway Labour Disputes Act, S.C. 1903, c. 55.Google Scholar
Industrial Disputes Investigation Act, S. C. 1907, c. 20.Google Scholar

Nova Scotia:

An Act “Of Street Railway Companies” S. N.S. 1911, c. 11.Google Scholar
An Act to Amend Chapter 11, Acts of 1911, entitled “Of Street Railway Companies” S. N.S. 1913, c. 52.Google Scholar
An Act to Amend Chapter 11, Acts of 1911, entitled, “Of Street Railway Companies” S. N.S. 1914, c. 58.Google Scholar

Ontario:

Ontario Railway and Municipal Board Act S. O. 1906, c. 31, ss. 58–59.Google Scholar
An Act to amend the Ontario Railway and Municipal Board Act S. O. 1912, c. 37.Google Scholar

Archival Documents

Public Archives of Canada. Strike and Lockout Files. RG 27, Reel T‐2690, Vol. 302, File 73. Untitled memorandum, on Port Arthur and Fort William, Ontario strike.Google Scholar
Toronto Archives. Records of Suspensions of Motormen 1899–1903. Fonds 16, Series 114, Files 2, Toronto, Ontario.Google Scholar