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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 October 2012
In this paper I examine British policy towards the Yuan Shikai government in China between 1912 and 1914 through a consideration of the role of Britain's ‘men on the spot’ in China (i.e. British diplomats and bankers resident there). In doing so, I synthesize two bodies of literature that rarely interact: British imperial history and work by China historians. Three main elements shaped British policy in China: first, British policy-makers were determined to support Yuan Shikai's consolidation of power in China; second, in the making of its China policy, the Foreign Office relied heavily on Britain's men on the spot; and, finally, these men were anxious about the vulnerability of the Yuan Shikai government and were therefore manipulated to a certain extent by Chinese politicians. I suggest that British policy-makers were reacting to, rather than controlling, Chinese politics and that in this period collaboration with British imperialism was a rational choice for the Yuan Shikai government.
This project has been completed with the constant advice, help, and encouragement of Professor Robert Bickers. I also would like to thank Professor Kitaoka Shinichi, Professor Hirano Satoshi, Benjamin Charlton, Professor Ho & Hon-wai, Jon Howlett, Koike Motomu, Professor Kubo Toru, Professor Mitsuta Tsuyoshi, Professor Okamoto Takashi, Professor Sakai Tetsuya, Yin Xinhua, Professor Bu Ping, Professor Hattori Ryuji, Hirano Tatsushi, Professor Kim Seung-Young, & Nik Krause, Ma Xiaojuan, Professor Ian Nish, Professor Niu Dayong, & Professor Nojima-Kato Yoko, Professor Sato Shinichi, Professor Shimizu Yuichiro, Yamada Makio, Yoneyama Tadahiro, two anonymous referees, my grandmother, my mother, and Yuan Zhe. My research was supported by a fellowship from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.
1 Referred to hereafter as ‘the Hongkong Bank’ or, simply, ‘the Bank’.
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21 O'Conor to Sanderson, 4 February 1895, the National Archives (Kew) [hereafter TNA], FO 17/1246.
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29 ‘The British Legation at Peking’, North China Herald [hereafter NCH], 6 April 1906, pp. 11–12.
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35 Quoted in Van de Ven, ‘Robert Hart and Gustav Detring’, p. 76.
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78 Memorandum by Mayers, 4 April 1913, SHGI 0211, HSBC Group Archives.
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89 Minute by J. D. G., 28 April 1913, on Jordan to Grey, 27 April 1913, TNA, FO 371/1593.
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125 Conty to Pichon, 28 April 1913, Archives Diplomatiques (la Courneuve, France), Correspondance Politique et Commerciale: 1897 à 1918, Nouvelle Série, Chine, NS367.
126 Telegram for Paris, 27 April 1913, TNA, FO 228/2355.
127 Fraser to Jordan, 25 April 1913, Private, TNA, FO 228/2355.
128 ‘The Loan Once More’, 22 April 1913, NCH, 26 April 1913, pp. 234–35. Also see Edw. F. Mackay to T. Raaschou, 5 June 1914, in Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce to W. E. Leveson, Records of Shanghai Municipal Council, Shanghai Municipal Archives, Shanghai, U1-1-734; Maze to Bowra, 24 July 1913, Archives of the Chinese Maritime Customs, the Second Historical Archives, Nanjing, 679(1)/32385.
129 Chan, Anglo-Chinese Diplomacy, pp. 72–74.
130 Maze to Aglen, 24 April 1913, the Second Historical Archives, Nanjing, Archives of the Chinese Maritime Customs, 679(1)/32386. Also, upon the request of the foreign consuls-general in Shanghai, the Shanghai Municipal Council notified a Guomindang leader that ‘. . . you are not permitted to remain in or enter the Foreign Settlement of Shanghai. If found within the limits of the Settlement after receipt of this notice you will render yourself liable to arrest [sic] by the Police.’ D. Siffert to E. C. Pearce, 11 August 1913; Shanghai Municipal Council to Chen Chi Mei [Chen Qimei], Shanghai Municipal Archives, Shanghai, Records of Shanghai Municipal Council, U1-1-734.
131 French Consul General in Shanghai to Pichon, 27 Juily 1913, Archives Diplomatiques (la Courneuve, France), Correspondance Politique et Commerciale: 1897 à 1918, Nouvelle Série, Chine, NS52.
132 Ijuin to Makino, 29 April 1913, Diplomatic Record Office, Tokyo, 1-7-1-22.
133 The Chinese chief inspector's function was rather nominal.
134 Alston to Grey, 2 November 1913, TNA, FO 371/1595; Note by R. M. Dane, 25 October 1913, Copy, HSBC Group Archives, London, SHGI 0302/001.
135 Dianqing, Zhang, ‘Beijing guomin zhengfu zhongyang caizheng zhong de yanshui [The Role of Salt Tax in the Central Revenue of the Beijing and Nationalist Government]’, Lishi jiaoxue, 2, 2006, pp. 22–26Google Scholar (especially p. 23).
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138 Jordan to Langley, 24 November 1914, Private, Jordan Papers, TNA, FO 350/12.
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141 Van de Ven, ‘Military and Financial Reform’, pp. 75, 79–90.
142 Conty to Pichon, 7 Octobre 1913, Archives Diplomatiques (la Courneuve, France), Correspondance Politique et Commerciale: 1897 à 1918, Nouvelle Série, Chine, NS53.
143 Gallagher, John and Robinson, Ronald, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, The Economic History Review, Second Series, 6 (1) 1953, pp. 1–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Osterhammel, Jürgen, ‘Britain and China, 1842–1914’, in Porter, Andrew (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar, Vol. III, pp. 146–69; Turnball, C. M., ‘Formal and Informal Empire in East Asia’, in Winks, Robin W. (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), Vol. V, pp. 379–402Google Scholar.
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151 An-sok, Son, ‘Senzen no gaimushou no chuugoku he no ryugakusei haken ni tsuite: meiji taishou ki wo chuushin ni [On the Pre-war Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Policy of Sending Students to China: Meiji and Taisho Eras]’, Chugoku kenkyuu geppou, 61 (9) 2007, pp. 1–16Google Scholar.
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155 French Consul General in Shanghai to Pichon, 27 Juily 1913, Archives Diplomatiques (la Courneuve, France), Correspondance Politique et Commerciale: 1897 à 1918, Nouvelle Série, Chine, NS52. Also see Bickers, The Scramble for China, Chapter 11.
156 Yoshizawa to Makino, 2 August 1913; Ijuin to Makino, telegram, 30 June 1913; Ministry of War to General Yokura in China, 10 July; Makino to consuls in China, draft telegram (no date), Diplomatic Record Office, Tokyo, 5-3-2-137.
157 Yamagata Hatsuo to Fukuda Masatarou, 19 January 1916, in Toshiaki, Yamaguchi (ed.), ‘Hama Omote Yasuke Bunsho [Papers of Hamaomote Matasuke]’, kenkyuukai, Kindainihon (ed.), Nenpou kindai Nihon kenkyuu [Annals of Modern Japanese Studies No. 2] (Tokyo: Yamakawa shuppansha, 1980), pp. 205–70Google Scholar (citation from pp. 223–24).
158 Cabinet resolution, 7 March 1916, Nihon gaikou monjo, the 5 year of Taisho, Vol. 2, pp. 45–46.
159 Kitaoka, Nihon rikugun to tairiku seisaku, pp. 181–95.
160 Jordan to Langley, 29 February 1916, Private, Jordan Papers, TNA, FO 350/15.
161 Jordan to Langley, 13 June 1916, Private, Jordan Papers, TNA, FO 350/15.
