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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 November 2008
American trade with China was ushered in by the voyage of the Empress of China to Canton in 1784. Within a few years commerce had become so profitable that the United States appointed Major Samuel Shaw to act as the American Consul in China. Very quickly the United States became the number two trader with China and the most serious rival to England. However, American ships were neither as large nor as numerous as those of the British East Indies Company and American merchants possessed neither the financial backing nor the prestige of their British counterpart. The United States was still a weak naval power and traders could not depend on any significant protection from the fleet. Furthermore, the Washington government was unable to exert any appreciable influence on Chinese authorities and they settled into a well-patterned position of following the British lead in the Far East.
1 Downs, John, The American Trade with the Far East: The China Trade and its Influence (New York: Macmillan Company, 1941), p. 13. TheEmpress of China, 360 tons, carried a cargo of foodstuffs, furs, and 40 tons of ginseng. Owned and fitted out jointly by Robert Morris and a group of New York merchants, the cost of the vessel, the outfit and expense of the voyage was $120,000.00 and the profits amounted to $37,727.00.Google Scholar
2 Appointed in 1786, Major Shaw had accompanied the Empress of China on its original voyage to the Far East as its supercargo. In part, he was given his appointment because of his experience gained in negotiating with the Chinese officals. He served as Consul until his death in 1794.Google Scholar
3 Latourette, Kenneth S., History of Early Relations Between the United States and China (1784–1844) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1919), p. 11.Google ScholarFor example, in 1801 exports to the United States amounted to $4,000,000. In the 1805–06 season they carried from Canton eleven million pounds of tea in thirty-seven ships, as against British trade of twenty-two million pounds of tea in forty-nine ships.Google Scholar
4 Great Britain signed a treaty with Siam in 1826. The American treaty is based on the British model, a pattern that United States negotiators would follow throughout the nineteenth century.Google Scholar
5 U.S. Congress, House Executive Documents 26th Congress, 1st session, Document 40.
6 Congressional Globe Containing Sketches of the Debates and Proceeding of the 26th Congress, Ist session. vol. 8, p. 109.Google ScholarHouse Docs. 26:1, 40.Google Scholar
7 House Docs.26:1, 119.Google Scholar
8 Ibid. House Docs. 26:1, 248. House Docs. 26:2, 71.
9 Ibid.
10 Peter Parker was the first American medical missionary to China. In 1834 he was sent to the Far East by the American Board of Foreign Missions, and the following year he opened an Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton. Frequently consulted by the State Department, he was secretary and interpreter for Caleb Cushing, served as charg'e d'affaires and became Commissioner to China. He retired in 1857 and died the following year.Google Scholar
11 Kearney was a career officer who had thirty-three years of active naval service, in the War of 1812, in pursuing pirates in the West Indies, and in the Mediterranean prior to his Far East assignment.Google Scholar
12 Rea, Kenneth W. (ed.), Early Sino-American Relations, 1841–1912, The Collected Articles of Earl Swisher (Boulder: Westview Press, 1977), p. 37.Google Scholar
13 He tried to gain the release of an American, Jay Coolidge, imprisoned by the Chinese, and complained about an American merchantman attacked by Chinese soldiers.
14 Dennett, Tyler, Americans in East Asia: A Critical Study of United States' Policy in the Far East in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1922), pp. 108–9.Google Scholar
15 Richardson, James D., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents (New York: Bureau of National Literature and Arts, 1910), Vol. 4, pp. 211–14.Google Scholar
16 Adams had an outstanding career in government. The son of President John Adams, he had served in various capacities in legation in Europe as secretary and minister. At home he served two terms as Secretary of State under President James Monroe and as President from 1825 to 1829. After his defeat for re-election in 1829 he returned to Congress as a representative from Massachusetts.
17 House Report, 27:3, 93.Google Scholar
18 Cong Globe, Vol. 12, p. 323.Google Scholar
19 Cong Globe, Vol. 12, pp. 323–25.Google Scholar
20 Dennett, , Americans in East Asia, p. 136.Google Scholar
21 Ibid.
22 Cushing, who served several terms in Congress, had changed from a Whig to a Democrat and was closely associated with Tyler and Webster. Trusted by neither party he had recently declined to run for re-election, fearing an ignominious defeat.
23 The treaty with England settled the long-standing border dispute between Canada and the United States over disputed territory in Maine.
24 Fuess, Claudes M., The Life of Caleb Cushing, Vol. I (Hamden Archon Books, 1923), p. 409.Google Scholar
25 Ibid., p. 412.
26 Cushing was not only scorned for his change of political parties; the Senate had refused to confirm him as Secretary of Treasury on two occasions.
27 Rea, (ed.), Early Sino-American Relations, p. 58.Google Scholar
28 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, p. 412.Google Scholar
29 Born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, the son of a Far East sea trading captain, he was a Phi Beta Kappa graduate from Harvard University. An excellent lawyer and historical writer, he was a regular contributor to the North American Review and the Annual Register. He published articles on maritime law as well as a history of his home town. Cushing was elected to four terms in the House of Representatives and at one time served in the House Committee of Foreign Relations.
30 Daniel Fletcher Webster, Daniel Webster's oldest son, a graduate from Harvard and a private secretary to his father. Commissioned a colonel during the Civil War, he was killed in action at the Battle of Bull Run on August 29, 1862.Google Scholar
31 The members were John H. O'Donnell, Robert L. Mackintosh, John R. Peters, and George R. West, an experienced draftsman. All volunteered for the mission.
32 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, p. 417.Google Scholar
33 The Missouri and Mississippi were the largest steam frigates afloat at this time and the pride of the United States Navy.
34 U.S. Senate Documents, 28th Congress, 2nd Session (Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1844), 138, p. 1.Google Scholar
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid., p. 2.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid., pp. 3–4. It is interesting to note that the British Court was not mentioned.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 Ibid., p. 5.
42 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, pp. 419–20. The letter refers to the Commissioner as ‘Count Caleb Cushing’, included to impress the Chinese officials that the American minister was a person of high rank and nobility.Google Scholar
43 The three missionaries had been in China since the early 1830s and were well known to Chinese officials in the area. They were all Sinologists.Google Scholar
44 Jeremiah, Hughes (ed.), Niles' National Register, 02 10, 1844, p. 363.Google Scholar
45 The Chinese reported that arrangements had not been made to receive the mission.
46 Clyde, Paul, The Far East: A History of the Impact of the West on East Asia (Englewood: Prentice Hall, 1958), p. 124.Google Scholar
47 Ch'en, Kenneth, ‘The Cushing Mission: Was it Necessary?’, Chinese Social and Political Science Review, Vol. 8 (1939), pp. 3–14. Therefore, the mission was superfluous.Google Scholar
48 Niles' National Register, February 10, 1844, p. 369.Google Scholar
49 Niles' National Register, July 15, 1843, p. 308.Google Scholar
50 The Governor-General was fully aware of the mission, having been informed of its purpose several months before the arrival of Cushing.
51 Sen Docs. 28:2, 67, p. 2.Google Scholar
52 SirPottinger, Henry was the chief negotiator for the British in the Treaty of Nanking, negotiated on board HMS Cornwallis.Google Scholar
53 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, p. 426.Google Scholar
54 Sen Docs. 28: 2 67, p. 3.Google Scholar
55 Ch'ing Tai Ch'ou Pan I Wu Shih Mo (The Management of Barbarian Affairs of the Ch'ing Dynasty From Beginning to End) (Peking: 1930), 17B, 3–18A, p. 4. Hereafter cited as IWSM.Google Scholar
56 Ibid., 15B, 1–16B, p. 2.
57 Sen. Docs. 28: 2, 67, p. 4.Google Scholar
58 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, p. 428.Google Scholar
59 Whampoa, , a commercial port 10 miles south of Canton was the official anchorage for foreign ships. No vessels were permitted to proceed to Canton, especially naval ships.Google Scholar
60 Dennett, , Americans in East Asia, p. 150.Google Scholar
61 He argued that an invitation had not been given the vessel to proceed to Whampoa.
62 Sen Docs. 28: 2, 67, pp. 16–17.Google Scholar
63 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, p. 429.Google Scholar
64 Sen. Docs. 28:2, 67, p. 2.Google Scholar
65 Ibid., p. 20.
66 Ibid., p. 21.
67 Imperial Commissioner Ch'i-ying negotiated the Treaty of Nanking with the British. Cushing was very happy to be negotiating with Ch'i-ying.
68 Cushing did not state how many ships were included in the squadron.
69 Sen. Docs. 28:2, 67, p. 30.Google Scholar
70 Ibid., p. 31.
71 Ibid., pp. 31–2.
72 Dennett, , Americans in East Asia, p. 153.Google Scholar
73 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, p. 432.Google Scholar
74 Ibid., p. 432.
75 Ibid.
76 Chinese Repository, Vol. 13 (Canton: printed for proprietors), 05 25, 1844, p. 306; Cushing to Upshur.Google Scholar
77 Sen. Docs. 28: 2, 67, pp. 65–6. Cushing conducted a trial by jury according to American law. He presided as judge and after several hours of testimony the jury rendered a verdict of acquittal on the grounds of self-defense. The verdict was relayed to Ch'i-ying who surprisingly accepted the version without comment.Google Scholar
78 Rea, (ed.), Early Sino-American Relations, pp. 75–6.Google Scholar
79 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, p. 434.Google Scholar
80 Ibid.
81 IWSM. 8A, 7–8B, p. 8.Google Scholar
82 There were very few difficulties in these preliminary talks and both sides seemed pleased with the negotiations. The meetings were alternated between Macao and the temple at Wanghsia. Williams, S. Wells also participated in some of the sessions.Google Scholar
83 Eight copies had been prepared, four in each language.
84 Miller, Hunter (ed.), Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1934), Vol. 4, pp. 559–70.Google Scholar
85 The Commissioner cited the British Treaty of Nanking as its basis for extraterritoriality and the Portuguese attainment of the same objective through their own local jurisdiction at Macao.
86 Sen Docs. 28: 2–57, pp. 11–12.Google Scholar
87 Ibid.
88 Sen. Docs. 28: 2–58, pp. 2–4.Google Scholar
89 Fuess, , Caleb Cushing, p. 437.Google Scholar
90 Dennett, , Americans in East Asia, p. 169.Google Scholar
91 Miller, Hunter (ed.), Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America, pp. 559–70.Google Scholar
