Hostname: page-component-5b777bbd6c-gtgcz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-18T23:49:01.730Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Molecular, Supramolecular, and Macromolecular Motors and Artificial Muscles

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2011

Dongbo Li ,
Walter F. Paxton ,
Ray H. Baughman ,
Tony Jun Huang ,
J. Fraser Stoddart  and
Paul S. Weiss

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Recent developments in chemical synthesis, nanoscale assembly, and molecular-scale measurements enable the extension of the concept of macroscopic machines to the molecular and supramolecular levels. Molecular machines are capable of performing mechanical movements in response to external stimuli. They offer the potential to couple electrical or other forms of energy to mechanical action at the nano- and molecular scales. Working hierarchically and in concert, they can form actuators referred to as artificial muscles, in analogy to biological systems. We describe the principles behind driven motion and assembly at the molecular scale and recent advances in the field of molecular-level electromechanical machines, molecular motors, and artificial muscles. We discuss the challenges and successes in making these assemblies work cooperatively to function at larger scales.

Type
Articles
Information
MRS Bulletin , Volume 34 , Issue 9: Electromechanics on the Nanometer Scale: Emerging Phenomena, Devices, and Applications , September 2009 , pp. 671 - 681
Copyright
Copyright © Materials Research Society 2009

References

1Joachim, C., Gimzewski, J.K., Aviram, A., Nature 408, 541 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2Balzani, V., Credi, A., Raymo, F.M., Stoddart, J.F., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 39, 3349 (2000).3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3Weiss, P.S., Acc. Chem. Res. 41, 1772 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4Bissell, R.A., Cordova, E., Kaifer, A.E., Stoddart, J.F., Nature 369, 133 (1994).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5Niemeyer, C.M., Appl. Phys. A 68, 119 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6Gomez-Lopez, M., Preece, J.A., Stoddart, J.F., Nanotechnology 7, 183 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7Alivisatos, A.P., Science 271, 933 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
8Klein, D.L., Roth, R., Lim, A.K.L., Alivisatos, A.P., McEuen, P.L., Nature 389, 699 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
9Cui, Y., Lieber, C.M., Science 291, 851 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10Duan, X.F., Huang, Y., Cui, Y., Wang, J.F., Lieber, C.M., Nature 409, 66 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11Huang, Y., Duan, X.F., Cui, Y., Lauhon, L.J., Kim, K.H., Lieber, C.M., Science 294, 1313 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12Bachtold, A., Hadley, P., Nakanishi, T., Dekker, C., Science 294, 1317 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13Lee, Y.H., Jang, Y.T., Choi, C.H., Kim, D.H., Lee, C.W., Lee, J.E., Han, Y.S., Yoon, S.S., Shin, J.K., Kim, S.T., Kim, E.K., Ju, B.K., Adv. Mater. 13, 1371 (2001).3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14Derycke, V., Martel, R., Appenzeller, J., Avouris, P., Nano Lett. 1, 453 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15Dekker, C., Phys. Today 52, 22 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16Tans, S.J., Verschueren, A.R.M., Dekker, C., Nature 393, 49 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17Balzani, V., Credi, A., Venturi, M., Eds., Molecular Devices and Machines: Concepts and Perspectives for the Nanoworld, Second edition (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18Elizarov, A.M., Chiu, S.H., Stoddart, J.F., J. Org. Chem. 67, 9175 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19Ikeda, T., Saha, S., Aprahamian, I., Leung, K.C.F., Williams, A., Deng, W.Q., Flood, A.H., Goddard, W.A., Stoddart, J.F., Chem. Asian J. 2, 76 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20Ballardini, R., Balzani, V., Gandolfi, M.T., Prodi, L., Venturi, M., Philp, D., Ricketts, H.G., Stoddart, J.F., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 32, 1301 (1993).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21Saha, S., Stoddart, J.F., Chem. Soc. Rev. 36, 77 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
22Credi, A., Venturi, M., Cent. Eur. J. Chem. 6, 325 (2008).Google Scholar
23Kumar, A.S., Ye, T., Takami, T., Yu, B.C., Flatt, A.K., Tour, J.M., Weiss, P.S., Nano Lett. 8, 1644 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24de Silva, A.P., Uchiyama, S., Nat. Nanotechnol. 2, 399 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25Yurke, B., Turberfield, A.J., Mills, A.P., Simmel, F.C., Neumann, J.L., Nature 406, 605 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26Mantooth, B.A., Weiss, P.S., Proc. IEEE 91, 1785 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27Moore, A.M., Weiss, P.S., Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem. 1, 857 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28Joachim, C., Ratner, M.A., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 8801 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29Fuchs, D.J., Weiss, P.S., Nanotechnology 18, 044021 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30Dunbar, T.D., Cygan, M.T., Bumm, L.A., McCarty, G.S., Burgin, T.P., Reinerth, W.A., Jones, L., Jackiw, J.J., Tour, J.M., Weiss, P.S., Allara, D.L., J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 4880 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31Bumm, L.A., Arnold, J.J., Cygan, M.T., Dunbar, T.D., Burgin, T.P., Jones, L., Allara, D.L., Tour, J.M., Weiss, P.S., Science 271, 1705 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32Seminario, J.M., Zacarias, A.G., Tour, J.M., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 3015 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33Seminario, J.M., De la Cruz, C.E., Derosa, P.A., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123, 5616 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34Seminario, J.M., Zacarias, A.G., Tour, J.M., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120, 3970 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35Tour, J.M., Chem. Rev. 96, 537 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36Di Ventra, M., Kim, S.G., Pantelides, S.T., Lang, N.D., Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 288 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37Bumm, L.A., Arnold, J.J., Charles, L.F., Dunbar, T.D., Allara, D.L., Weiss, P.S., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121, 8017 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
38Smith, R.K., Lewis, P.A., Weiss, P.S., Prog. Surf. Sci. 75, 1 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39Donhauser, Z.J., Mantooth, B.A., Kelly, K.F., Bumm, L.A., Monnell, J.D., Stapleton, J.J., Price, D.W., Rawlett, A.M., Allara, D.L., Tour, J.M., Weiss, P.S., Science 292, 2303 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
40Cygan, M.T., Dunbar, T.D., Arnold, J.J., Bumm, L.A., Shedlock, N.F., Burgin, T.P., Jones, L., Allara, D.L., Tour, J.M., Weiss, P.S., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120, 2721 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41Weck, M., Jackiw, J.J., Rossi, R.R., Weiss, P.S., Grubbs, R.H., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121, 4088 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
42Moore, A.M., Mantooth, B.A., Dameron, A.A., Donhauser, Z.J., Lewis, P.A., Smith, R.K., Fuchs, D.J., Weiss, P.S., Adv. Mater. Res. 10, 29 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43Lewis, P.A., Inman, C.E., Yao, Y.X., Tour, J.M., Hutchison, J.E., Weiss, P.S., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 12214 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44Mullen, T.J., Srinivasan, C., Hohman, J.N., Gillmor, S.D., Shuster, M.J., Horn, M.W., Andrews, A.M., Weiss, P.S., Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, 063114 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45Mullen, T.J., Dameron, A.A., Andrews, A.M., Weiss, P.S., Aldrichim. Acta 40, 21 (2007).Google Scholar
46Bumm, L.A., Arnold, J.J., Dunbar, T.D., Allara, D.L., Weiss, P.S., J. Phys. Chem. B 103, 8122 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47Cui, X.D., Primak, A., Zarate, X., Tomfohr, J., Sankey, O.F., Moore, A.L., Moore, T.A., Gust, D., Harris, G., Lindsay, S.M., Science 294, 571 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48Moore, A.M., Mantooth, B.A., Donhauser, Z.J., Maya, F., Price, D.W., Yao, Y.X., Tour, J.M., Weiss, P.S., Nano Lett. 5, 2292 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49Tour, J.M., Acc. Chem. Res. 33, 791 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50Tour, J.M., Rawlett, A.M., Kozaki, M., Yao, Y.X., Jagessar, R.C., Dirk, S.M., Price, D.W., Reed, M.A., Zhou, C.W., Chen, J., Wang, W.Y., Campbell, I., Chem. Eur. J. 7, 5118 (2001).3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51Lewis, P.A., Inman, C.E., Maya, F., Tour, J.M., Hutchison, J.E., Weiss, P.S., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 17421 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52Magoga, M., Joachim, C., Phys. Rev. B 56, 4722 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53Derosa, P.A., Seminario, J.M., J. Phys. Chem. B 105, 471 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54Lewis, P.A., Donhauser, Z.J., Mantooth, B.A., Smith, R.K., Bumm, L.A., Kelly, K.F., Weiss, P.S., Nanotechnology 12, 231 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
55Moore, A.M., Dameron, A.A., Mantooth, B.A., Smith, R.K., Fuchs, D.J., Ciszek, J.W., Maya, F., Yao, Y.X., Tour, J.M., Weiss, P.S., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 1959 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56Dameron, A.A., Ciszek, J.W., Tour, J.M., Weiss, P.S., J. Phys. Chem. B 108, 16761 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
57Stoddart, J.F., Tseng, H.R., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99, 4797 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58Griffiths, K.E., Stoddart, J.F., Pure Appl. Chem. 80, 485 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
59Diederich, F., Stang, P.J., Eds., Templated Organic Synthesis. (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60Nguyen, T.D., Tseng, H.R., Celestre, P.C., Flood, A.H., Liu, Y., Stoddart, J.F., Zink, J.I., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 10029 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61Nguyen, T.D., Liu, Y., Saha, S., Leung, K.C.F., Stoddart, J.F., Zink, J.I., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129, 626 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62Nguyen, T.D., Leung, K.C.-F., Liong, M., Pentecost, C.D., Stoddart, J.F., Zink, J.I., Org. Lett. 8, 3363 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63Saha, S., Leung, K.C.-F., Nguyen, T.D., Stoddart, J.F., Zink, J.I., Adv. Funct. Mater. 17, 685 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
64Angelos, S., Johansson, E., Stoddart, J.F., Zink, J.I., Adv. Funct. Mater. 17, 2261 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65Angelos, S., Yang, Y.-W., Patel, K., Stoddart, J.F., Zink, J.I., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47, 2222 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
66Patel, K., Angelos, S., Dichtel, W.R., Coskun, A., Yang, Y.-W., Zink, J.I., Stoddart, J.F., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 2382 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67Steuerman, D.W., Tseng, H.R., Peters, A.J., Flood, A.H., Jeppesen, J.O., Nielsen, K.A., Stoddart, J.F., Heath, J.R., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43, 6486 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68Aprahamian, I., Yasuda, T., Ikeda, T., Saha, S., Dichtel, W.R., Isoda, K., Kato, T., Stoddart, J.F., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 46, 4675 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
69Deng, W.Q., Flood, A.H., Stoddart, J.F., Goddard, W.A., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 15994 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
70Ikeda, T., Aprahamian, I., Stoddart, J.F., Org. Lett. 9, 1481 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71Green, J.E., Choi, J.W., Boukai, A., Bunimovich, Y., Johnston-Halperin, E., DeIonno, E., Luo, Y., Sheriff, B.A., Xu, K., Shin, Y.S., Tseng, H.-R., Stoddart, J.F., Heath, J.R., Nature 445, 414 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72Dichtel, W.R., Heath, J.R., Stoddart, J.F., Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 365, 1607 (2007).Google Scholar
73Flood, A.H., Ramirez, R.J.A., Deng, W.Q., Muller, R.P., Goddard, W.A., Stoddart, J.F., Aust. J. Chem. 57, 301 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74Flood, A.H., Stoddart, J.F., Steuerman, D.W., Heath, J.R., Science 306, 2055 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
75Jang, S.S., Jang, Y.H., Kim, Y.H., Goddard, W.A., Choi, J.W., Heath, J.R., Laursen, B.W., Flood, A.H., Stoddart, J.F., Norgaard, K., Bjornholm, T., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 14804 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
76Luo, Y., Collier, C.P., Jeppesen, J.O., Nielsen, K.A., DeIonno, E., Ho, G., Perkins, J., Tseng, H.R., Yamamoto, T., Stoddart, J.F., Heath, J.R., ChemPhysChem 3, 519 (2002).3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77Pease, A.R., Jeppesen, J.O., Stoddart, J.F., Luo, Y., Collier, C.P., Heath, J.R., Acc. Chem. Res. 34, 433 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
78Tseng, H.R., Vignon, S.A., Celestre, P.C., Perkins, J., Jeppesen, J.O., Di Fabio, A., Ballardini, R., Gandolfi, M.T., Venturi, M., Balzani, V., Stoddart, J.F., Chem. Eur. J. 10, 155 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
79Ashton, P.R., Ballardini, R., Balzani, V., Baxter, I., Credi, A., Fyfe, M.C.T., Gandolfi, M.T., Gomez-Lopez, M., Martinez-Diaz, M.V., Piersanti, A., Spencer, N., Stoddart, J.F., Venturi, M., White, A.J.P., Williams, D.J., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120, 11932 (1998).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80Badjic, J.D., Balzani, V., Credi, A., Silvi, S., Stoddart, J.F., Science 303, 1845 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
81Badjic, J.D., Ronconi, C.M., Stoddart, J.F., Balzani, V., Silvi, S., Credi, A., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 1489 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82Lane, A.S., Leigh, D.A., Murphy, A., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 11092 (1997).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
83Huang, T.J., MRS Bull. 33, 226 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84Ballardini, R., Balzani, V., Becher, J., Di Fabio, A., Gandolfi, M.T., Mattersteig, G., Nielsen, M.B., Raymo, F.M., Rowan, S.J., Stoddart, J.F., White, A.J.P., Williams, D.J., J. Org. Chem. 65, 4120 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
85Bermudez, V., Capron, N., Gase, T., Gatti, F.G., Kajzar, F., Leigh, D.A., Zerbetto, F., Zhang, S.W., Nature 406, 608 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
86Collin, J.P., Gavina, P., Sauvage, J.P., New J. Chem. 21, 525 (1997).Google Scholar
87Nygaard, S., Leung, K.C.F., Aprahamian, I., Ikeda, T., Saha, S., Laursen, B.W., Kim, S.Y., Hansen, S.W., Stein, P.C., Flood, A.H., Stoddart, J.F., Jeppesen, J.O., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129, 960 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
88Zheng, Y.B., Yang, Y.W., Jensen, L., Fang, L., Juluri, B.K., Flood, A.H., Weiss, P.S., Stoddart, J.F., Huang, T.J., Nano Lett. 9, 819 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89Altieri, A., Bottari, G., Dehez, F., Leigh, D.A., Wong, J.K.Y., Zerbetto, F., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 42, 2296 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
90Ashton, P.R., Ballardini, R., Balzani, V., Credi, A., Dress, K.R., Ishow, E., Kleverlaan, C.J., Kocian, O., Preece, J.A., Spencer, N., Stoddart, J.F., Venturi, M., Wenger, S., Chem. Eur. J. 6, 3558 (2000).3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91Gatti, F.G., Lent, S., Wong, J.K.Y., Bottari, G., Altieri, A., Morales, M.A.F., Teat, S.J., Frochot, C., Leigh, D.A., Brouwer, A.M., Zerbetto, F., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 10 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92Brouwer, A.M., Frochot, C., Gatti, F.G., Leigh, D.A., Mottier, L., Paolucci, F., Roffia, S., Wurpel, G.W.H., Science 291, 2124 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
93Huang, T.J., Brough, B., Ho, C.M., Liu, Y., Flood, A.H., Bonvallet, P.A., Tseng, H.R., Stoddart, J.F., Baller, M., Magonov, S., Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 5391 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
94Liu, Y., Flood, A.H., Bonvallett, P.A., Vignon, S.A., Northrop, B.H., Tseng, H.R., Jeppesen, J.O., Huang, T.J., Brough, B., Baller, M., Magonov, S., Solares, S.D., Goddard, W.A., Ho, C.M., Stoddart, J.F., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127, 9745 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
95Juluri, B.K., Kumar, A.S., Liu, Y., Ye, T., Yang, Y.W., Flood, A.H., Fang, L., Stoddart, J.F., Weiss, P.S., Huang, T.J., ACS Nano 3, 291 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
96Ashton, P.R., Parsons, I.W., Raymo, F.M., Stoddart, J.F., White, A.J.P., Williams, D.J., Wolf, R., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37, 1913 (1998).3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
97Wu, J.S., Leung, K.C.F., Benitez, D., Han, J.Y., Cantrill, S.J., Fang, L., Stoddart, J.F., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47, 7470 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
98Choi, J.W., Flood, A.H., Steuerman, D.W., Nygaard, S., Braunschweig, A.B., Moonen, N.N.P., Laursen, B.W., Luo, Y., DeIonno, E., Peters, A.J., Jeppesen, J.O., Xu, K., Stoddart, J.F., Heath, J.R., Chem. Eur. J. 12, 261 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
99Huang, T.J., Flood, A.H., Brough, B., Liu, Y., Bonvallet, P.A., Kang, S.S., Chu, C.W., Guo, T.F., Lu, W.X., Yang, Y., Stoddart, J.F., Ho, C.M., IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng. 3, 254 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100Zhang, W.Y., Dichtel, W.R., Stieg, A.Z., Ben'tez, D., Gimzewski, J.K., Heath, J.R., Stoddart, J.F., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 6514 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101Kim, P., Lieber, C.M., Science 286, 2148 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
102Rueckes, T., Kim, K., Joselevich, E., Tseng, G.Y., Cheung, C.L., Lieber, C.M., Science 289, 94 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
103Deshpande, V.V., Chiu, H.Y., Postma, H.W.C., Miko, C., Forro, L., Bockrath, M., Nano Lett. 6, 1092 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
104Baughman, R.H., Cui, C.X., Zakhidov, A.A., Iqbal, Z., Barisci, J.N., Spinks, G.M., Wallace, G.G., Mazzoldi, A., De Rossi, D., Rinzler, A.G., Jaschinski, O., Roth, S., Kertesz, M., Science 284, 1340 (1999).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
105Vohrer, U., Kolaric, I., Haque, M.H., Roth, S., Detlaff-Weglikowska, U., Carbon 42, 1159 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106Gupta, S., Hughes, M., Windle, A.H., Robertson, J., J. Appl. Phys. 95, 2038 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
107Madden, J.D.W., Barisci, J.N., Anquetil, P.A., Spinks, G.M., Wallace, G.G., Baughman, R.H., Hunter, I.W., Adv. Mater. 18, 870 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108Mirfakhrai, T., Oh, J., Kozlov, M., Fok, E.C.W., Zhang, M., Fang, S., Baughman, R.H., Madden, J.D.W., Smart Mater. Struct. 16, S243 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
109Yun, Y., Shanov, V., Tu, Y., Schulz, M.J., Yarmolenko, S., Neralla, S., Sankar, J., Subramaniam, S., Nano Lett. 6, 689 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
110Qu, L.T., Peng, Q., Dai, L.M., Spinks, G.M., Wallace, G.G., Baughman, R.H., MRS Bull. 33, 215 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111Mirfakhrai, T., Madden, J.D.W., Baughman, R.H., Mater. Today 10, 30 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
112Ebron, V.H., Yang, Z.W., Seyer, D.J., Kozlov, M.E., Oh, J.Y., Xie, H., Razal, J., Hall, L.J., Ferraris, J.P., MacDiarmid, A.G., Baughman, R.H., Science 311, 1580 (2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
113Madden, J.D., Science 318, 1094 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
114Spinks, G.M., Wallace, G.G., Fifield, L.S., Dalton, L.R., Mazzoldi, A., De Rossi, D., Khayrullin, I.I., Baughman, R.H., Adv. Mater. 14, 1728 (2002).3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
115Ahir, S.V., Terentjev, E.M., Nat. Mater. 4, 491 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
116Koerner, H., Price, G., Pearce, N.A., Alexander, M., Vaia, R.A., Nat. Mater. 3, 115 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
117Miaudet, P., Derre, A., Maugey, M., Zakri, C., Piccione, P.M., Inoubli, R., Poulin, P., Science 318, 1294 (2007).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
118Courty, S., Mine, J., Tajbakhsh, A.R., Terentjev, E.M., Europhys. Lett. 64, 654 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
119Louie, S.G., Top. Appl. Phys. 80, 113 (2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
120Vigolo, B., Penicaud, A., Coulon, C., Sauder, C., Pailler, R., Journet, C., Bernier, P., Poulin, P., Science 290, 1331 (2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
121Zhang, M., Atkinson, K.R., Baughman, R.H., Science 306, 1358 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
122Zhang, M., Fang, S.L., Zakhidov, A.A., Lee, S.B., Aliev, A.E., Williams, C.D., Atkinson, K.R., Baughman, R.H., Science 309, 1215 (2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
123Li, Y.L., Kinloch, I.A., Windle, A.H., Science 304, 276 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
124Dalton, A.B., Collins, S., Munoz, E., Razal, J.M., Ebron, V.H., Ferraris, J.P., Coleman, J.N., Kim, B.G., Baughman, R.H., Nature 423, 703 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
125Ericson, L.M., Fan, H., Peng, H.Q., Davis, V.A., Zhou, W., Sulpizio, J., Wang, Y.H., Booker, R., Vavro, J., Guthy, C., Parra-Vasquez, A.N.G., Kim, M.J., Ramesh, S., Saini, R.K., Kittrell, C., Lavin, G., Schmidt, H., Adams, W.W., Billups, W.E., Pasquali, M., Hwang, W.F., Hauge, R.H., Fischer, J.E., Smalley, R.E., Science 305, 1447 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
126Baughman, R.H., Zakhidov, A.A., de Heer, W.A., Science 297, 787 (2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
127Baughman, R.H., Synth. Met. 78, 339 (1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
128Baughman, R.H., Shacklette, L.W., Eisenbaumer, R.L., Plichta, E.J., Becht, C. in Conjugated Polymeric Materials: Opportunities in Electronics, Optoelectronics, and Molecular Electronics. Brédas, J.L., Chance, R.R., Eds. (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1990), pp. 559–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
129Madden, J.D.W., Vandesteeg, N.A., Anquetil, P.A., Madden, P.G.A., Takshi, A., Pytel, R.Z., Lafontaine, S.R., Wieringa, P.A., Hunter, I.W., IEEE J. Oceanic Eng. 29, 706 (2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
130Aliev, A.E., Oh, J., Kozlov, M.E., Kuznetsov, A.A., Fang, S., Fonseca, A.F., Ovalle, R., Lima, M.D., Haque, M.H., Gartstein, Y.N., Zhang, M., Zakhidov, A.A., Baughman, R.H., Science 323, 1575 (2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
131Sun, G.Y., Kurti, J., Kertesz, M., Baughman, R.H., J. Phys. Chem. B 107, 6924 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
132Gartstein, Y.N., Zakhidov, A.A., Baughman, R.H., Phys. Rev. B 68 (2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar