¹ See Lucian, Works, tr. H. W. and F. G. Fowler, 4 vols. (Oxford, 1905), iv, 64–67; Plautus, ed. and tr. P. Nixon, 5 vols. (London and New York: Loeb, 1924–38), Epidicus, ii, 449 ff.; Terence, ed. and tr. J. Sargeaunt, 2 vols. (London and New York: Loeb, 1912), Heautontimorumenos, ii, 111–117.

² O. Ribbeck, Der Alazon (Leipzig, 1882), pp. 30–51; Gr. Senigaglia, Capitan Spavento (Firenze, 1899), pp. 27–31; S. Eitrem, The Colax (Christiania, 1906), pp. 3–8; P. E. Legrand, The Greek New Comedy, tr. Loeb (London, 1917), pp. 220–222; and Paul Lejay, Plaute (Paris, 1925), pp. 119–120.

³ Legrand, 94–97 and Eitrem.

⁴ Menander, Fragments, ed. and tr. F. G. Allinson (London and New York: Loeb, 1930), Colax, pp. 382–397, and Misoumenos, p. 413. In the latter Thrasonides sighs that a worthless wench has enslaved him, whom no enemy could vanquish—a recurrent theme. In the former play, Bias appears in the fragments only once, as a heavy drinker.

⁵ Cf. the gibe at Stratophanes (pp. 434–437).

⁶ The same mood and similar themes occur in the presentations of the soldier in Theophrastus (Characters, ed. and tr. J. M. Edmonds [London and New York: Loeb, 1929], pp. 98–109; and in Lucian, iv, 72–78).

⁷ That the Romans enjoyed this picture of the soldier is obvious from the numerous (eight) examples in Latin comedy, whatever the degree of remoteness of Latin comedy from Roman life. The professional soldier did not exist among the Romans at the time. Yet the encounter with Greeks, Carthaginians, and their mercenaries must have sharpened the palate of the Latin for a mocking or satirical portrayal of such warriors. Professor Frank estimates that ninety percent of the able-bodied men in the audience of Plautus had served in campaigns among and with the Greeks (Life and Literature in the Roman Republic [Berkeley, 1930], pp. 69 ff.). See also F. A. Wright, Three Roman Poets (New York, 1938), pp. 35–40; E. Fraenkel, Plautinisches im Plautus (Berlin, 1922), pp. 231–239 and 253 ff.; R. M Westaway, Original Element in Plautus (Cambridge, 1917), pp. 26–56; Lejay, 119–121; Senigaglia, 33–34; and Legrand, 37–46 and 466–467.

⁸ He has fought

⁹ 1–8.

¹⁰ 24 and 33–35. The captain sends the toady off with recruits early in the play.

¹¹ “Elephanti corio” (235–236).

¹² 17–53 and 1273. The seal on the ring of Therapontigonus was a bucklered warrior dividing an elephant with his sword (Curculio, 424).

¹³ 58–59, 777, 1054–55, and 1085–86.

¹⁴ 1076–81.

¹⁵ Though a chaser of both sexes (1111–13) he makes adultery his leading interest: “moechus” is a frequent epithet (775, 924, 1131, and 1436).

¹⁶ 802.

¹⁷ 1264 and 1413–22.

¹⁸ 1435–37.

¹⁹ 1423, 64 and 768, and 923–924.

²⁰ 1063–65.

²¹ 106–107, 1302–04, and 1063–64.

²² Bacchides, ll. 843–918. The slave jeers that Cleomachus captures cities with no other weapon than his mighty tongue (962). The senex is moved to furnish the money to release the harlot by the pretext that Cleomachus is about to kill his “wife” and his rival (the old man's son), whom he has surprised together on the couch—a trick similar to the Elizabethan cross-biting.

²³ Poenulus, ll. 471–472 and 1289.

²⁴ 1300–25. He forces the pimp to disgorge the money (1285). Polymachaeroplagides (whose martial attributes are presented largely by his name) does not appear in Pseudolus; he is merely an obstacle to the lovers. But his orderly Harpax swaggers and is tricked out of the girl intended for the captain (ll. 607–650 and 1103 ff.).

²⁵ Truculentus, l. 508.

²⁶ 482 and 540.

²⁷ 925–963.

²⁸ Senigaglia believes the theme a contribution of commedia erudita (115–121). Menander presented it in Misoumenos (p. 413).

²⁹ Truculentus, 600–630.

³⁰ See above, n. 12.

³¹ Curculio, ll. 340–729 passim.

³² Epidicus, ll. 436–444.

³³ Indeed, he makes only one general reference to battles and scars (Eunuchus, ll. 482–483).

³⁴ 391–139.

³⁵ 1079–80.

³⁶ 479 and 496.

³⁷ 755–811.

³⁸ 761–764.

³⁹ 1025–27.

⁴⁰ 741.

⁴¹ The view presented above is familiar to students of Elizabethan critical theory. English writings accord with tradition as represented by Horace, Donatus (whose essay was found in almost all eds. of Terence printed in England or on the continent, 1500–1600), and Scaliger that comedy is a mirror of daily life and that writers of comedy, like the satirists, employed ridicule as a means of dissuasion from vice. Cf. Elyot, Puttenham, Sidney, and Jonson. Among the living types susceptible of corrective representation on the stage were “a busie loving Courtier, a hartlesse threatning Thraso” (Sidney, Defense of Poesie, ed. Feuillerat [Cambridge, 1923], pp. 23 and 41). See O. J. Campbell, Comicall Satyre (San Marino, 1938), pp. 1–34.

A brief selection of references will show how the miles gloriosus was used for satire. Gascoigne likens boasting soldiers in London to “Thraso and his trayne” (Works, ed. Cunliffe, 2 vols. [Cambridge, 1907–10], i, 157). Greene satirized low-born courtiers as strutters like “Philopolimarchides [Polymachaeroplagides], the braggart in Plautus” (Works, ed. Grosart, 15 vols. [London, 1881–86], xi, 215–216). Nashe called the foppish upstart and pretended intimate of great lords a “proude Thraso” (Works, ed. McKerrow, 5 vols. [London, 1910], i, 241–242). Some roaring boys “Thrasonically countenance themselves w^t the title of a Souldior” (Greene, ix, 249). The fashionable gallant and bogus traveller was also a “Thraso” (Rowlands, Letting of Hvmovrs Blood, in Works, Hunterian Club, 3 vols. [Glasgow, 1881], i, p. 19). Such references show that the similarity between the stage braggart and hated local types was a commonplace of Elizabethan observation.

⁴² U. A. Canello, Storia della Letteratura Italiana nel Secolo XVI (Milano, 1880), pp. 1–14; Benedetto Croce, La Spagna nella Vita Italiana durante la Rinascenza, 2nd ed. rev. (Bari, 1922), p. 118. Cf. Croce, Saggi sulla Letteratura Italiana del Seicento (Bari, 1911), pp. 278–297; and C. Cipolla, Storia delle Signorie Italiane al 1530, 2 vols. (Milano, 1881), ii, 925–973. R. W. Bond makes a convenient summary of the details of contemporary life reflected in Italian comedy (Early Plays from the Italian [Oxford, 1911], Introduction). He follows A. Agresti, Studii sulla Commedia Italiana del Secolo XVI (Napoli, 1871). Cf. V. de Amicis, L'Imitazione Latina nella Commedia Italiana del XVI Secolo (Pisa, 1871), pp. 75–78.

⁴³ Machiavelli, carried away by his low opinion of mercenaries, relates that in the battle of Anghiari only one died, as the result of a fall from his horse (Historie Fiorentine, V, 215–216, in Tutte le Opere [n. p.], 1550). Yet the field was covered with corpses (so says Villari). On Machiavelli's view of soldiers, see The Prince, tr. A. H. Gilbert (Chicago, 1941), Chapter 12, and p. 44.

⁴⁴ De Amicis, 123–124; Jacob Burckhardt, Renaissance in Italy (London, 1929), pp. 110–119; J. S. Kennard, The Italian Theater, 2 vols. (New York, 1932), i, 108–109 and 129–130; K. M. Lea, Italian Popular Comedy, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1934), i, 41–51; Senigaglia, 7–27; and Luigi Rasi, I Comici Italiani, 3 vols. (Firenze, 1897–1905), i, 82–85, etc.

⁴⁵ Francesco Guicciardini has left a famous account of these events in La Historia d'Italia, Libro xviii, 70–135 (Parma, 1572). It must be remembered that other mercenaries, for instance the Germans, took part in the sacking. Five other contemporary accounts are collected by C. Milanesi in Il Sacco di Roma (Firenze, 1867).

⁴⁶ Croce, La Spagna, 235–240. He cites comedies that satirize the Spaniard's taking ways: for example, the hand-kissing interpreted sarcastically as a means of stealing rings (Gianmaria Cecchi, Il Corredo, iii, 6, in Comedie [Venetia, 1585]). For a realistic Spanish picture of the high-handed manner of the swashbuckling invader toward native Italians, see Bartolomé de Torres Naharro's Comedia Soldadesca in the Propaladia, repr. Manuel Cañete, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1880–90), i, 288–342, especially “Jornada Tercera” and “Jornada Quinta.” Cf. Lope de Vega, Amar sin Saber a Quién, Acto ii, escena 10.

⁴⁷ Croce notes that many contemporary documents confirm this view. One of the most interesting in scope and particularity is the treatise De Educatione (c. 1521, published in Naples, 1865) by Antonio de Ferrariis, known as Galateo. Croce follows this frank commentator with corroboration from other sources, and I follow Croce. (La Spagna, 100–123; Ricerche Ispano-Italiane [Napoli, 1898], pp. 8–26; and the article on Galateo in Humanisme et Renaissance, iv, 366–382 [1937]).

⁴⁸ La Spagna, 178–179. This effeminacy was largely ascribed to the influence of the Moors, whom the Spaniards themselves despised as “hombres medio mugeres” (Guillén de Castro, Mocedades del Cid [1618], 1. 2570).

⁴⁹ Guicciardini charged that the “Spagnuoli per satiare la loro libidine non guardono ne a sesso ne a età” (Historia, Libro xvii, 32). These notes obviously disprove the view that the gloved gentleman was a development of a later generation.

⁵⁰ Cited by Croce, La Spagna, 187.

⁵¹ Ibid., 118–119. This was before 1525. The duel must already have been codified by the Spaniards, although Caranza's book was not published until 1569. Duels had been forbidden in Spain as early as 1480.

⁵² Croce, La Spagna, 175–200.

⁵³ De Amicis, 102; Senigaglia, 16 ff. The view, of course, is a commonplace. See the prologue of Alessandro Piccolomini's Amor Costante (Venetia, 1540).

⁵⁴ Due Cortigiane, ii, 3.

⁵⁵ The French tr. by Charles Estienne (Les Abvsez, 1540) and the Latin version Laelia derived from it (presented in Cambridge in 1595) and the Spanish tr. by Lope de Rueda (Los Engañados, 1567) omit the part altogether.

⁵⁶ Ingannati (Vinegia, 1538), ii, 3 and iv, 6. Giglio salutes the crone, “Toma mi amistad, que bueno para ti”; and she replies ironically, “Che me farai signora, eh?” (ii, 3). “Danari di Spagna” became proverbial for money promised but not forthcoming (Croce, La Spagna, 179–183). What member of the Intronati wrote the Ingannati? The answer has usually been Alessandro Piccolomini. A recent writer nominates Marcantonio Piccolomini (Edmund Villela de Chasca in his ed. of Lope de Rueda's Engañados [Chicago, 1941], pp. 29–31).

⁵⁷ I. Sanesi, La Commedia, 2 vols. (Milano, 1911–35), i, 335.

⁵⁸ Amor Costante, leaves 20–22.

⁵⁹ Leaves 64–68.

⁶⁰ Rivali, v, 10, in Commedie, ed. G. Milanesi, 2 vols. (Firenze, 1899).

⁶¹ ii, 1.

⁶² iii, 4. Part of the fun comes from misunderstandings by Ignico of what those about him say, and from pretended misunderstandings by others of what he says.

⁶³ Fantesca, iv, 7, in Commedie, 4 vols. (Napoli, 1726). All references are to this edition. V. Spampanato edited eight of the plays in 2 vols. (Bari, 1910). See also Vincenzo Belando, Amorosi Inganni (Paris, 1609), ii, 1. Cf. Girolamo Parabosco, Pellegrino (1552), ii, 2; and Virgilio Verucci, Diversi Linguaggi (1609). I am indebted to Senigaglia (107) for this note; and I am able to supplement my notes from the materials also in Sanesi, Rasi, Croce, Lea, and K. von Reinhardstoettner, Plautus (Leipzig, 1886).

⁶⁴ Tabernaria, iii, 2.

⁶⁵ Sanesi has a good account of humanistic comedy and the triumph of classicism on the Italian stage (i, 61–222). See also Bond (loc. cit.) and Kennard (i, 105–108).

⁶⁶ Sanesi,, 223–337.

⁶⁷ Ibid., i, 198–199. Senigaglia overlooks Nardi.

⁶⁸ Due Felici Rivali, ed. A. Ferrajoli (Roma, 1901), iii, 2 and iv, 2, 3. The play remained unprinted until this time. The boasts of the rufián Centurio in the amplified edition of the Celestina by Fernando de Rojas published in Seville in 1502 are strikingly similar to those of Trasone: both figures are hired assassins whose courage is as little as their brags are great; their swords have enriched surgeons, filled cemeteries, and for twenty years provided their owners with food; Centurio, like Trasone has mastered a repertory with several hundred methods of killing; and as one of Trasone's companions is a cripple, so the Spaniard will entrust the actual swordplay to the lame Traso (Acts 15 and 18, ed. Menéndez y Pelayo, 2 vols., [Vigo, 1900]). The Celestina soon enjoyed a European celebrity, being frequently translated into Italian; the famous version by Alphonso Hordognez was published in Rome in 1506.

⁶⁹ Contenti, iii, 2. Other bravi appear in Parabosco's Marinaio and Pellegrino. See also Senigaglia, 100–101; and Sanesi, i, 256.

⁷⁰ Senigaglia, 74.

⁷¹ Talanta, iii, 2, in Commedie, ed. E. Camerini (Milano, 1888). For example, Tinca calls Talanta “la durlindana del suo Orlando.” Her mocking reply, “vivanda della mia tavola” (iii, 13), betokens the debasement of Thais in Italian imitations of the Eunnchus.

⁷² He was a torchbearer at Cerignuola (scene of a famous battle in 1503), where they fought all day and called it quits—though only one died and two were hurt. In breaking the siege of Padua, he got the cord about a cat dangling from a lance in a defiant bastion (iii, 12). At the sacking of Biagrassa, he magnanimously reduced by a trifle the ransom one of his prisoners had imposed upon himself (iv, 8). He fought under Francis I at the battle of Marignano (1515) [iv, 16].

⁷³ The gifts of both men are used by Talanta to support her affair with Orfino (v, 24).

⁷⁴ iii, 14.

⁷⁵ See below, pp. 65–69. Tinca says Orfino dares open his mouth only because he is not Tinca's equal in rank and so knows the soldier will not fight him; he promises appropriate revenge at the proper time (iii, 15).

⁷⁶ Tinca wants quiet; he has had enough of the toilsome life of a condottiere. He moans that he has slept more often beside horses than in bed, that all his possessions cost him blood from his back, and that he has more wounds than crowns; a soldier earns so little that thieves never bother him (iv, 16, 17).

⁷⁷ Shakespeare reverses the situation when he represents Sir Andrew, after a beating, as saying he will “have an action of battery against” his assailant (Twelfth Night, iv, 1, 36).

⁷⁸ iv, 20 and v, 2. In the end he pardons the girl.

⁷⁹ v, 2, 4. C. Corporali's Ninnetta (1604) and C. Land's Vespa (1586) are modelled on Talanta. Aretino's Quattro Comedie were printed in London in 1588.

⁸⁰ Gelosi (Vinegia, 1551), ii, 5.

⁸¹ iii, 5.

⁸² v, 4. See below, pp. 65–67.

⁸³ Maiana, iii, 5, 6. Fausta is another debasement of Thais.

⁸⁴ Martello, i, 2, 3.

⁸⁵ iv, 9 and v, 9, 11.

⁸⁶ Berenice (Venetia, 1601), i, 7 and iii, 1.

⁸⁷ iv, 14, and v, 11. A neat touch is Bagolina's mock when Cerbero boasts of his “viril beltà”—“Cu, cu,” for the cuckold (iii, 2).

⁸⁸ See the analysis by Senigaglia, 79–82. Cf. Sanesi, i, 251.

⁸⁹ Capitano (Vinegia, 1560), iv, 1.

⁹⁰ v, 1.

⁹¹ i, 1.

⁹² iv, 4.

⁹³ v, 1. Celio Calagnini's Soldato Millantatore (before 1541) is a prose tr. of the Miles Gloriosus.

⁹⁴ Della Porta depicted the braggart more often than any other Italian playwright, in no fewer then ten comedies.

⁹⁵ The epithet “basilisco” suggests both the serpent and the roaring cannon.

⁹⁶ Olimpia, i, 4, 5.

⁹⁷ “Non la vo' ponere se non dove piace a me: vuoimene forzar tu? sei tu padrone delle mie mani? sto io con te che mi commandi?” (ii, 7).

⁹⁸ iii, 9. Fabritio de Fornaris derived his Angelica (Paris, 1585) from Olimpia: the captain is Matamoros and speaks Spanish, and one of his epithets became famous, “don Alonso Cocodrillo”; he is “maestro de cirimonias” and “seruidor de Damas” (Rasi, ii, 742–743). There was a French translation, Angelique, by “le Sieur L. C.” (Paris, 1599). See Sanesi, i, 492; A. L. Stiefel in Archiv, lxxxvi (1891), 46–80; and Croce, Teatri de Napoli (Bari, 1926), p. 50.

⁹⁹ Trapolaria, ii, 4 and iii, 7.

¹⁰⁰ iv, 11.

¹⁰¹ Inganni (Venetia, 1582), ii, 9 and iv, 1, 2.

¹⁰² Beffa, iii, 11.

¹⁰³ See below, pp. 78–79.

¹⁰⁴ Emilia (Paris, 1609), iii, 6 and v, 4.

¹⁰⁵ iii, 7 and v, 4.

¹⁰⁶ Indeed, Senigaglia calls the Italian soldier “un tipo costante ed immutabile”—a faulty generalization, I believe. Allusions in Lodovico Ariosto's Lena (1528), v, 1, and in the prologue of Aretino's Marescalco (1533) indicate that the rôle had become conventionalized almost as soon as it was enacted on the Italian stage (see Senigaglia, 70 ff.).

¹⁰⁷ See A. D'Ancona, Origini del Teatro Italiano, 2 vols. (Torino, 1891), pp. 589–595.

¹⁰⁸ Spampana thus resembles the bragging Vice in the English morality. Sanesi compares the French moralité (i, 412).

¹⁰⁹ From the extract in L. Stoppato, Commedia Popolare in Italia (Padova, 1887), pp. 197–211.

¹¹⁰ Antonio Mico's Vanto d'un Soldato (1525) presents another early stereotype in the popular farce whose boasts are also modified by a Renaissance coloring. He fought in a farcical duel, scoring “un Stochata,” until the adversaries were separated by the “Signor del campo,” were reconciled, and embraced. He also brags of amatory triumphs (Senigaglia, 153–159).

¹¹¹ Tr. A. Mortier in Ruzzante, 2 vols. (Paris, 1925–26), ii, 217–238.

¹¹² On the basis of these traits and the wide circulation of the Parlamento, Mortier believed that Ruzzante influenced Tinca, Sganghera, and Taddeo and the captains of the commedia dell' arte (i, 134 and 208–220). Lea properly disagrees (i, 235–238). Ruzzante has also been called the father of Falstaff (see Sanesi, i, 496).

¹¹³ See below, p. 65.

¹¹⁴ Mortier's tr., ii, 123–185.

¹¹⁵ Travaglia (Vinegia, 1557), ii, 9.

¹¹⁶ i, 3 and ii, 5, 6.

¹¹⁷ iii, 3.

¹¹⁸ iii, 6, 8, 12.

¹¹⁹ Luigi Pasqualigo, Fedele (Venetia, 1576), iii, 7. The Two Italian Gentlemen (1584) is an English translation. On the subject of names, see Senigaglia, 98–99.

¹²⁰ Borghini, Amante Furioso (1584).

¹²¹ Guarini, Idropica (1583).

¹²² Groto, Emilia.

¹²³ Calmo, Spagnolas (1549).

¹²⁴ Cecchi, Maiana.

¹²⁵ Ghirardi, Leonida (1585). “Galdelone” may be a humorous distortion of Ganelone, the traitor in the Charlemagne romances and in Pulci.

¹²⁶ The name is a compound of derivatives from Gorgon and from gorgoliare, the rumbling of the stomach. Gorgolione, though rare, still survives as a surname. Della Porta, Chiappinaria (1598), i, 1. Cf. Bucefalo in Marzi's Fanciulla (1621).

¹²⁷ He is the son of Mars and Bellona and their lieutenant on earth (Della Porta, Due Fratelli Rivali, i, 4).

¹²⁸ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore (c. 1580).

¹²⁹ Calmo, Rhodiana (Vinegia, 1553), iii, 8.

¹³⁰ Cecchi. Martello.

¹³¹ Inferno, xxxiii.32. Other names of the same sort: Cacciadiavoli recalls current surnames like Caccianemico (also in the Inferno, xviii.50) and Cacciamali; Vinciguerra is widespread even today; Spezzaferro is still common, and has several variants like Scacciaferro, Battiferri, and Tagliaferro (cf. the English Tolliver). For suggestions on these names and for other criticisms, I want to thank Prof. Joseph G. Fucilla.

¹³² Parabosco, Pellegrino; D. G. Salernitano, Vafro (1585).

¹³³ Anton Francesco Raineri, Altilia (1550); Della Porta, Olimpia, i, 4; Furiosa (1609). For the baleful effect of the glance, see Sforza degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore (Venetia, 1591), iv, 1.

¹³⁴ Loredano, Berenice.

¹³⁵ Della Porta, Sorella (1589), ii, 6.

¹³⁶ As in ibid.

¹³⁷ Senigaglia, 91–92.

¹³⁸ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, v, 9.

¹³⁹ Della Porta, Sorella.

¹⁴⁰ Chiappinaria, v, 9.

¹⁴¹ Moro (1607), v, 5.

¹⁴² Aretino, Talanta.

¹⁴³ Raffaello Borghini, Amante Furioso (Vinegia, 1597), i, 5.

¹⁴⁴ Senigaglia, 100. For examples, see Calmo, Travaglia; and Parabosco, Pellegrino, ii, 2.

¹⁴⁵ Pasqualigo, Fedele.

¹⁴⁶ Cecchi, Corredo, v, 8. Cf. Curculio.

¹⁴⁷ Pasqualigo, Fedele, v, 6.

¹⁴⁸ Bernardino Lombardi, Alchimista (Ferrara, 1583), iv, 5.

¹⁴⁹ Gigio Arthemio Giancarli, Cingano (1545) [Venetia, 1610], iv, 12, 13. Cf. Gargullo in the Medoro (1567) of Lope de Rueda, Obras, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1908), especially scs. 4 and 5.

¹⁵⁰ Cecchi, Martello, v, 11. Cf. Loredano, Berenice, v, 11.

¹⁵¹ Della Porta, Furiosa, ii, 8, iii, 5 and iv, 3–6.

¹⁵² Ercole Bentivoglio, Geloso (Venezia, 1544).

¹⁵³ Della Porta, Chiappinaria, i, 2.

¹⁵⁴ Ibid., i, 1; Olimpia, i, 4.

¹⁵⁵ Groto, Emilia, iii, 6 and v, 4: Cf. Alessandro Piccolomini, Alessandro (Vinegia, 1562), i, 6.

¹⁵⁶ Calmo, Rhodiana, iv, 3.

¹⁵⁷ Lombardi, Alchimista, ii, 6 and iv, 5; Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, ii, 8.

¹⁵⁸ Della Porta, Due Fratelli Rivali, i, 4; Chiappinaria, i, 1.

¹⁵⁹ Lombardi, Alchimista, i, 5.

¹⁶⁰ Della Porta, Olimpia, i, 5 and ii, 5. Cf. Cecchi, Corredo, ii, 7.

¹⁶¹ Secchi, Beffa; Parabosco, Pellegrino, ii, 2.

¹⁶² Parabosco, Marinaio, iii, 2. Hence the captain scoffs at damnation.

¹⁶³ Pasqualigo, Fedele, ii, 16.

¹⁶⁴ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iv, 1.

¹⁶⁵ Della Porta, Chiappinaria, iii, 4.

¹⁶⁶ See above, p. 54.

¹⁶⁷ Bentivoglio, Geloso, ii, 5. Allusions to contemporary officers are usual. The Gattamelata who officered the Venetians (Machiavelli, Historie Fiorentine, v, 196) is referred to by Parabosco, Fantesca, p. 54; and by Borghini, Amante Furioso, i, 8.

¹⁶⁸ Groto, Emilia, iii, 6. Cf. Ottavio Gloritio, Impresa d'Amore (1605), i, 17.

¹⁶⁹ Lombardi, Alchimista, iv, 5 and iii, 7.

¹⁷⁰ Gabiani, Gelosi, iii, 5.

¹⁷¹ Borghini, Amante Furioso, i, 8.

¹⁷² [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svpposito (Ascoli, 1583). ii. 1.

¹⁷³ See above, p. 47. In Girolamo Parabosco's Fantesca (Vinegia, 1556), Arsenico armed with a dagger, is put to flight by a servant who brandishes a knife (pp. 68–69). The rifacimenti of the Eunuchus have been noted above, pp. 53–56.

¹⁷⁴ On this subject, see Professor A. H. Gilbert's paper, “The Duel in Italian Cinquecento Drama,” La Rinascita, to appear. Professor Gilbert believes that when the duel appears, direct dependence on Plautus is a thing of the past. I am indebted to Professor Gilbert for other suggestions and criticisms in this paper.

¹⁷⁵ F. R. Bryson, The Sixteenth-Century Italian Duel (Chicago, 1938), p. 3.

¹⁷⁶ F. R. Bryson, The Point of Honor in Sixteenth-Century Italy (New York, 1935), pp. 12–40.

¹⁷⁷ Gabiani, Gelosi, v, 4. Cf. Lombardi, Alchimista, i, 5.

¹⁷⁸ Della Porta, Furiosa, ii, 1.

¹⁷⁹ Bryson, Point of Honor, 16.

¹⁸⁰ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iv, 7; Della Porta, Moro, ii, 12; Chiappinaria, iii. 5.

¹⁸¹ Calmo, Travaglia, iii, 3.

¹⁸² Cecchi, Martello, i, 2.

¹⁸³ Bryson, Point of Honor, 24–25.

¹⁸⁴ Della Porta, Sorella, iii, 8. Falstaff's trickeries are not unlike those of the Italian soldier. In this connection, it may be recalled that Don Quijote delivered a lecture on those who could be insulted and those who could not; an offense did not require avenging. For example, a man overwhelmed by ten armed foes was offended but not insulted; and a man struck by another who ran away had received an injury but no insult, since the latter had to be maintained. Don Quijote concludes that according to the laws of the cursed duello, thus, one may be wronged but not affronted (Don Quijote, ed. Marin [Madrid, 1913], Parte Segunda, Cap. xxxii).

¹⁸⁵ Venturino da Pesaro, Farsa Satyra Morale, 208.

¹⁸⁶ Bryson, Point of Honor, 32.

¹⁸⁷ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, v, 6.

¹⁸⁸ Gabiani, Gelosi, v, 7. The violation of his sister and the robbery of his house constitute the injury.

¹⁸⁹ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iv, 8. Girolamo Muzio published his treatise Il Duello in 1550.

¹⁹⁰ Della Porta, Furiosa, ii, 8. Cf. Gilbert, “The Duel.”

¹⁹¹ Della Porta, Olimpia, ii, 7. There is also a suggestion of the belief that mutual insults made a duel unnecessary (Bryson, Sixteenth-Century Italian Duel, 4).

¹⁹² Bryson, Point of Honor, 40.

¹⁹³ Giancarli, Cingano, ii, 16, 24.

¹⁹⁴ Calmo, Travaglia, iii, 3.

¹⁹⁵ Cecchi, Rivali, iii, 4.

¹⁹⁶ Cf. Senigaglia, 93 and 107. A challenge could be refused if after provocation it was not given within a year (Bryson, Sixteenth-Century Italian Duel, 6). The braggart calls on time and delay to save himself (Della Porta, Chiappinaria, iii, 5; Piccolomini, Alessandro, v, 3).

Challenges were generally delivered by documents, especially in the form of a “cartello,” a challenge to a particular person assuring him of safe-conduct, though the term also denoted any written communication between two opponents (Bryson, Sixteenth-Century Italian Duel, 7). Rabbioso is called “Vrlandazzo dal cartarol” in jest at his pretended skill in fencing (Calmo, Travaglia, ii, 10). Lanfranco also boasts that no one knows better than he the fine points of the “cartello,” on which subject he gives counsel every year to a thousand bravi (Cecchi, Martello, v, 4).

¹⁹⁷ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iv, 7, 8 and v, 6, 9.

¹⁹⁸ Parabosco, Fantesca, 47–48.

¹⁹⁹ Gabiani, Gelosi, iv, 4, 7.

²⁰⁰ Della Porta, Moro, iii, 3.

²⁰¹ Cintia, ii, 9 and iii, 9.

²⁰² Due Fratelli Rivali, iv, 3.

²⁰³ Piccolomini, Amor Costante, leaf 64. See above pp. 1–52.

²⁰⁴ Calmo, Travaglia, iii, 6. Cf. Ghirardi, Leonida, iii, 18.

²⁰⁵ He will make such a noise that though he does not move his hand, she will think that he has carried out her wish (Pasqualigo, Fedele, iv, 11).

²⁰⁶ As in Aretino, Talanta (see above p. 54).

²⁰⁷ [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svpposito, ii, 4.

²⁰⁸ Parabosco, Fantesca, 53–55.

²⁰⁹ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, ii, 8.

²¹⁰ Della Porta, Chiappinaria, ii, 5.

²¹¹ Cecchi, Martello, i, 2.

²¹² Lombardi, Alchimista, i, 5.

²¹³ Cecchi, Corredo, iii, 6.

²¹⁴ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, v, 10; Piccolomini, Alessandro, i, 6; Della Porta, Sorella, iii, 6.

²¹⁵ Della Porta, Olimpia, ii, 5; Cintia, ii, 3; Due Fratelli Rivali, iii, 3; and Moro, i, 2.

²¹⁶ Chiappinaria, i, 2; Furiosa, ii, 2.

²¹⁷ Della Porta, Furiosa, ii, 7. Cf. [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svppositio, ii, 4.

²¹⁸ Della Porta, Chiappinaria, I, 4; Due Fratelli Rivali, iii, 3.

²¹⁹ Senigaglia calls the boaster in this rôle the capitano seduttore (113–114).

²²⁰ Piccolomini, Alessandro, iii, 4, iv, 6, and v, 3. Cf. Rabbioso and Cortese in Calmo's Travaglia, iii, 8, 12; Arsenico and his wife in Parabosco's Fantesca, 68–69; and Ruzzante in the Parlamento and in Moschetta.

²²¹ See above, pp. 49–52.

²²² Trasilogo is typical (Della Porta, Olimpia, ii, 7 and iii, 9).

²²³ Sforza degli Oddi, Erofilomackia (Perugia, 1572), iv, 8. Cf. Raineri, Attilia.

²²⁴ Della Porta, Chiappinaria, v, 9, 10.

²²⁵ Lombardi, Alchimista, iv, 5; Della Porta, Cintia, ii, 3; Borghini, Amante Furioso, I, 3 and ii, 2.

²²⁶ Della Porta, Due Fratelli Rivali, iv, 3.

²²⁷ Verucci, Servo Astuto, iv, 7.

²²⁸ Boneto Ghirardi, Leonida (Veneria, 1585), iii, 8. In Pasqualigo's Fedele, the servant receives the malodorous bath. The Two Italian Gentlemen gives it to the soldier.

²²⁹ Della Porta, Furiosa, ii, 8 and IV, 3–6.

²³⁰ Loredano, Berenice, v, 11.

²³¹ [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svpposito, v, 7.

²³² For example, Rinoceronte (Degli Oddi, Erofilomachia, iii, 6). Senigaglia calls the boaster in this rôle the capitano innamorato (115–116).

²³³ G. F. Loredano, Madrigna (1601), iv, 8. Cf. Belisario Bulgarini, Scambi, I, 5, in Commedie, 2 vols. (Siena, 1611); and Senigaglia, 115–116.

²³⁴ Della Porta, Cintia, ii, 3.

²³⁵ Sorella, iii, 6.

²³⁶ See pp. 49–52 above.

²³⁷ Pasqualigo, Fedele, ii, 16.

²³⁸ Lombardi, Alchimista, ii, 6. Cf. Calmo, Rhodiana, iv, 3.

²³⁹ Cecchi, Corredo, iii, 6, 7.

²⁴⁰ “Quel Sole, che illumina tutto il Regno di Amore, & che mi accende l'animo di generosa fiamma ad heroiche imprese” (Loredano, Berenice, iii, 1).

²⁴¹ iii, 2.

²⁴² Cecchi, Martello, i, 3. A proud escudero was offended by the same greeting, which he regarded as appropriate to peasants, but not to nobility; to those in higher ranks, the least to be expected was “Beso las manos de Vuestra Merced” (Lazarillo de Tormes [Madrid, 1914], pp. 211–212). In early Spanish comedy such breaches of etiquette became a stereotyped source of humor: some farces began with the appearance of an uncouth personage whose first words, the familiar salutation “Dios mantenga,” served to make a cultured audience merry (see the monograph by Professor Hendrix in Native Comic Types in Early Spanish Drama, [Columbus, 1925], pp. 106–08).

²⁴³ Comedia de Rvinazzo Brauo (Vinezia, 1550?).

²⁴⁴ Prigione d'Amore, ii, 3. Cf. Falstaff and Prince Hal.

²⁴⁵ iv, 1.

²⁴⁶ Cecchi, Martello, I, 2, 3.

²⁴⁷ Calmo, Travaglia, i, 3; Cecchi, Corredo, ii, 7; Lombardi, Alchimista, iv, 5.

²⁴⁸ Della Porta, Chiappinaria, i, 1.

²⁴⁹ Piccolomini, Alessandro, I, 6. Cf. Secchi, Beffa.

²⁵⁰ [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svpposito, ii, 1. Cf. Della Porta, Sorella, ii, 6 and iii, 6.

²⁵¹ Della Porta, Sorella, iii, 6.

²⁵² Chiappinaria, I, 2.

²⁵³ Due Fratelli Rivali, i, 4 and iii, 11; Lombardi, Alchimista, I, 5.

²⁵⁴ See Senigaglia on the figure generally (109–112).

²⁵⁵ An easy wife for example (Piccolomini, Alessandro, ii, 2). Cf. Della Porta, Sorella, ii, 2.

²⁵⁶ Cecchi, Corredo, v, 7. Cf. Della Porta, Due Fratelli Rivali, i, 4.

²⁵⁷ Piccolomini, Alessandro, ii, 2, and iii, 4.

²⁵⁸ Della Porta, Chiappinaria, i, 1.

²⁵⁹ Loredano, Berenice, i, 7; Cecchi, Rivali, iii, 4.

²⁶⁰ [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svpposito, ii, 1.

²⁶¹ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, II, 8. A dialogue may ring changes on the captain's praise of the day as worthy of arms, and the parasite's as worthy of food (Della Porta, Furiosa, ii, 1). Cf. the dialogue of Zan Badile and the captain (1613) in Rasi, I, 64–66.

²⁶² G. B. Marzi, Fanciulla (1621), ii, 6.

²⁶³ Della Porta, Due Fratelli Rivali, i, 4. Cf. Sorella, ii, 6.

²⁶⁴ Sorella, iii, 8.

²⁶⁵ Venturino da Pesaro, 208.

²⁶⁶ Aretino, Marescalco (1533), Prologue; Ghirardi, Leonida, ii, 1; Parabosco, Fantesca, 53; Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iv, 1; Della Porta, Cintia, ii, 9, and Olimpia, i, 4. Sir Toby Belch declares that in the duel the timid Cesario and the coward Sir Andrew “will kill one another by the look, like cockatrices” (Twelfth Night, iii, iv, 215).

²⁶⁷ Pasqualigo, Fedele, ii, 16.

²⁶⁸ Parabosco, Fantesca, 53.

²⁶⁹ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, IV, 1.

²⁷⁰ See the drawings in Rasi, I, 57–77; in P. L. DuChartre, Italian Comedy, tr. Weaver (London, 1929), pp. 225–250; and in A. Nicoli, Masks, Mimes and Miracles (London, 1931), pp. 246–252.

²⁷¹ Loredano, Berenice, iii, 1, 2; Parabosco, Fantesca, 51.

²⁷² Altilia (Mantova, 1550), iv, 5, 7.

²⁷³ Ghirardi, Leonida, iii, 18.

²⁷⁴ Cf. [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svpposito, ii, 4.

²⁷⁵ Marescalco, Prologue.

²⁷⁶ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, v, 8. Cf. Don Armado in Love's Labor's Lost.

²⁷⁷ Della Porta, Sorella, i, 5; ii, 6 and iii, 7.

²⁷⁸ Cintia, ii, 9 and iii, S; Galdelone is a “Colosso” (Ghirardi, Leonida, iii, 18). See E. E. Stoll, Shakespeare Studies (New York, 1927), p. 428.

²⁷⁹ See above, pp. 48–52.

²⁸⁰ See above, pp. 54–55 and 59–61; Senigaglia, 86.

²⁸¹ Della Porta, Due Fratelli Rivali, i, 4. Cf. Passamonte in [Academici di Padoa,] Parto Svpposito.

²⁸² Calmo, Rhodiana, iii, 7.

²⁸³ Venturino da Pesaro, Farsa, 205–207.

²⁸⁴ Borghini, Amante Furioso, ii, 14 and iii, 5.

²⁸⁵ iv, 10 and v, 17.

²⁸⁶ [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svpposito, iii, 2, 6.

²⁸⁷ Gabiani, Gelosi, I, 2 and ii, 3.

²⁸⁸ He loses his clothes and is beaten by the parasite whom he tries to rob (Ghirardi, Leonida, ii, 12, 13).

²⁸⁹ iii, 9 and iv, 23.

²⁹⁰ [Academici di Padoa], Parto Svpposito, ii, 4. He boasts that he will make her a Bellona, a Penthesilia, a new Camilla.

²⁹¹ iii, 2, 6; v, 7.

²⁹² Cecchi, Maiana, ii, 6 and iii, 5, 6.

²⁹³ Della Porta, Due Fratelli Rivali, i, 3.

²⁹⁴ Francesco D'Ambra, Fvrto (1561), [Venetia, 1596], sig. 10^v and 41^v.

²⁹⁵ Calmo, Spagnolas (Venetia, 1555), Act iii; Rhodiana, iii, 7, 8. Cf. Tombola in Marino Negro, Pace (Venetia, 1599), ii, 2, 4.

²⁹⁶ The ragged bravo Zigantes forces the parasite to give him the chain bought from the thief Forca by a trick resembling the Elizabethan “ring-faller” cheat described by John Awdeley (Fraternity of Vagabonds, in A. V. Judges, The Elizabethan Underworld [London, 1930], pp. 53–55). But the chain is valueless, and Zigantes loses his cloak, hat, and sword to the thief (Lombardi, Alchimista, ii, 9 and iii, 7).

²⁹⁷ Guarini, Idropica, ii, 2.

²⁹⁸ Cecchi, Martello, i, 2 and v, 5, 11.

²⁹⁹ Lea, i, 52.

³⁰⁰ Rabbioso in Calmo, Travaglia; Zigantes in Lombardi, Alchimista, i, 5; Cecchi, Martello, i, 3; Tombola in Negro, Pace, i, 9 and iv, 7.

³⁰¹ Cecchi, Maiana, iv, 4.

³⁰² Senigaglia insists that the captain limits himself to boasts of combats real or imaginary, but is the witless butt of others (21–23 and 100–102). That is not entirely correct.

³⁰³ Calmo, Travaglia, ii, 19.

³⁰⁴ Pasqualigo, Fedele, iv, 11.

³⁰⁵ Parabosco, Pellegrino, ii, 2. Cf. Melaza in Parabosco's Marinaio, iii, 2 and iv, 4; and Stramazza in Contenti, iii, 2. The latter resembles Nardi's Trasone.

³⁰⁶ Bluntschli in G. B. Shaw's Arms and the Man, Act. i. See the pertinent comments by Professor Kittredge in his ed. of 1 Henry IV (Boston, 1940), p. xiii. Bluntschi says, “It is our duty to live as long as we can.” John Manningham records that “a souldier being challenged for flying from camp said, ‘Homo fugiens denuo pugnabit‘” (Diary, ed. Bruce, p. 60) Professor Borgese has traced the theme that honor is an empty sound, in Falstaff's catechism of honor, to the Aminta of Tasso by way of Samuel Daniel's Delia (“The Dishonor of Honor: from Giovanni Mauro to Sir John Falstaff,” Romanic Rev., xxxii [1941], 44–55).

³⁰⁷ Secchi, Beffa, iii, 1.

³⁰⁸ Della Porta, Chiappinaria, v, 10.

³⁰⁹ Furiosa, iii, 5. Cf. Nardi, Due Felici Rivali, iv, 3.

³¹⁰ Aretino, Talanta, iv, 16, 17.

³¹¹ Cecchi Martello, i, 2.

³¹² Loredano, Berenice, iii, 1.

³¹³ Della Porta, Due Fratelli Rivali, i, 4. Cf. Calmo, Travaglia, iii, 6.

³¹⁴ Della Porta, Cintia, ii, 3; Degli Oddi, Erofilomachia, iii, 6.

³¹⁵ Borghini, Amante Furioso, i, 12.

³¹⁶ Dolce, Capitano, i, 1.

³¹⁷ Parabosco, Fantesca, 45–53. The witch Melissa warned Bellerofonte against the future (Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iv, 1). The captain in Piccolomini's Alessandro has adopted the name of Malagigi, a cousin of Rinaldo skilled in magic in the Orlando Furioso.

³¹⁸ Calmo, Travaglia, ii, 6.

³¹⁹ Ibid. iii, 6.

³²⁰ [Academici di Padoa], Parlo Svpposito, ii, 1; Borghini, Amante Furioso, i, 8; and Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iv, 1.

³²¹ Dolce, Capitano, i, 1.

³²² Calmo, Rhodiana, iii, 2.

³²³ Parabosco, Fantesca, 53.

³²⁴ Cf. Senigaglia, 94.

³²⁵ As in Della Porta's Moro, ii, 7.

³²⁶ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iv, 1; and Erofilomachia, iii, 6.

³²⁷ Thinking Venice is a city noted for the chase, he must learn from his servant that Venice is the city of lagoons (Piccolomini, Alessandro, iii, 4).

³²⁸ He is also a poet (Dolce, Capitano, iv, 4 and v, 1).

³²⁹ Cf. the device above the portrait of Gascoigne printed at the back of the title in the first ed. of The Steele Glas (1576). Weapons are on the right and pen and books on the left (reproduced as the frontispiece in Works, vol. two).

³³⁰ Degli Oddi, Prigione d'Amore, iii, 8. Cf. the report of the battle (iv, 1) and the mock prayer to Fortune (iv, 7), and ii, 8.

³³¹ For example, “bisarcipoltroncionaccionissimo poltroncione” (v, 9).

³³² Borghini, Amante Furioso, i, 3 and ii, 5. Professor Campbell has advanced the suggestion that the Falstaff of The Merry Wives has assumed the rôle of the pedante (“The Italianate Background of The Merry Wives of Windsor,” in Michigan Studies [Ann Arbor 1932], pp. 87–97). Professor Gilbert objects that the Falstaff of Henry IV has all the education implied by any of his speeches in The Merry Wives (M.L.N., xlix [1934], 51–53). The notes above show that the braggart was not untouched by pedantic speech.

³³³ Cortigiana, iv, 13.

³³⁴ Gramatica continues, that love is “cosa lontanissima in tutto dalla nostra professione, la qual fu sempre di seguire il sesso nobiliore” (Scambi, i, 5).

³³⁵ Strega, i, 2, in Commedie, ed. P. Fanfani (Firenze, 1859).

³³⁶ ii, 1, 4 and iv, 3.

³³⁷ iii, 1.

³³⁸ iv, 2, 3.

³³⁹ v, 8.

³⁴⁰ Taddeo represents what Sanesi calls “la fiorentinizzazione” of the classical miles (i, 311). In Elizabethan drama the use of the rôle to deride contemporary types also occurred. (See my paper on “Don Armado and the Commedia dell' Arte,” SP, xxxvii [1940], 201–224).