It has been suggested to me that I should take this opportunity to initiate discussion about the Antarctic Treaty: in particular to review how far the Treaty is meeting our present practical needs. During the forty years or more during which I have been associated with Antarctic affairs, I have seen some degree of international order evolved out of chaos; harmony has replaced discord; many apparently insoluble problems have been resolved one after another. I have seen that good co-operation and compromise can be and have been achieved repeatedly without any significant sacrifice of national autonomy and to the common advantage of all concerned.

The importance of reducing friction between an icebreaker's hull and the ice or snow by hull lubrication has been known for a long time and bow screws have been used on ships designed for sub-Arctic conditions. These propellers, however, are at high risk in Arctic conditions and this prompted intensive research in the 1960's at the Oy Wärtsilä Ab Helsinki shipyard to try to find an alternative method for use on icebreakers venturing further north. The idea of using air bubbles to create a lubricating water stream arose from the investigations of the two phase propulsion system, in which the propulsive effect is obtained by mixing gas and liquid, carried out at the Helsinki University of Technology. Model testing and detailed design of the system started immediately, and the first installation was made in 1969 in the roll on roll off ferry MS Finncarrier (Fig 1).

The vast expanses of tundra and taiga stretching from Kol'skiy Poluostrov to Chukotka have long been utilized by small ethnic groups with a chiefly northern economy—reindeer husbandry, hunting, fishing, sea mammal hunting. At present, judging by the data of the all-Union census of 1970, their total number is a little over 150 000. The peoples of the north include the Nentsy, formerly Samoyed (28 705), Evenki, formerly Tungus (25 149), Khanty, formerly Ostyak (21 138), Chukchi (13 597), Eveny, formerly Lamut (12 029), Nanaytsy, formerly Gol'd (10 005), Mansi, formerly Vogul (7 710), Koryaki (7 487), Dolgany (4 877), Nivkhi, formerly Gilyak (4 420), Sel'kupy, formerly Ostyak Samoyed (4 282), Ul'chi or Ol'chi (2 448), Saamy or Lapps (1 884), Udegeytsy (1 469), Eskimosy (1 308), Itel'meny (1 301), Kety, formerly Yeniseians (1 182), Orochi (1 089), Nganasany (953), Yukagiry (615), Negidal'tsy (537), Aleuty (Itogi,1973, p 21–22) (441); and also some not accounted for in the census— Entsy (300), Oroki (400) and Chuvantsy (700) (Novaya zhizn', 1967, p 7–9)

The Arctic Ocean covers an area of roughly 10 million km2. The terrain, in reality an ocean of ice, varies in altitude from sea level to pressure ridges and floes up to 60 m high, in which extensive leads of open water may well be encountered. In the short summer period the temperature can rise significantly above freezing point but during winter the air temperature will drop to levels well below —48°C. During the winter, high winds will buffet radio antenna installations and ice storms render an aerial array virtually useless. In the Arctic basin, periods of mist and fog frequently occur, and during these it will be impossible to determine bearing or position by conventional navigation methods. During any extended journey beyond the land mass surrounding the Arctic Ocean it is important, therefore, to establish communication with base headquarters at an early stage and at regular intervals thereafter to ensure adequate re-supply, provide a homing aid for the re-supply aircraft and to call for assistance or instructions in the event of an emergency.

The purpose of this paper is to report on the present status of the small but growing population of the Antarctic Fur Seal Arctocephalus gazella in the South Shetland Islands (Fig 1). The previous history of the sealing of this species is well documented by O'Gorman (1961, 1963), Bonner and Laws (1964) and Bonner (1964,1968). The current status of this and other species of fur seals, and the species of sea lions and true seals in the Southern Hemisphere, has been summarized by Laws (1973a). Bonner (1968) has made natural history and population studies on Antarctic Fur Seals in South Georgia, and present research here is being carried out by Dr M. R. Payne and two other colleagues of the British Antarctic Survey (Laws, 1973b).

The first permanent Polish scientific station in the Antarctic—the H. Arctowski station—was opened on 26 February 1977 on behalf of the Polish Academy of Sciences, by the 1976–77 expedition's leader. Assistant Professor S. Rakusa-Suszczewski. The station is built on the west coast of Admiralty Bay, south of Point Thomas, King George Island, in the South Shetland Islands, and is named after Professor Henryk Arctowski (1871–1958), an outstanding Polish scientist and member of the Belgian Antarctic Expedition in Belgica (1897–99) under A. de Gerlache de Gomery. Its location by the sea allows the possibility of oceanographic research, which should make up for the lack of such a centre in Poland. However, its main purpose is to carry out the biological studies necessary in order to formulate measures for the protection of the Antarctic flora and fauna, whose existence is being threatened by an increasing number of tourists and fishermen. It is also hoped that co-operation with other scientists and countries, and exchanges of information will occur, and that the station will be a stopover point for many scientific expeditions and other ships.

The Australian Museum, with the assistance of the Australian Antarctic Division, supported a team of four biologists during the 1977–78 summer season at Macquarie Island (54°30'S 158°57'E). An extensive survey of marine algae and invertebrates from the intertidal zone, and down to depths of 20 m along the coastline, was a major objective of the marine programme. The terrestrial ecology programme included studies of microscopic terrestrial invertebrates, especially tardigrades or water bears, cryptogam (particularly hepatics, lichens and mosses) and vascular plant collections, and the recovery of sea-bird ectoparasites. The biologists and their interests were Dr D. S. Horning, marine biology and terrestrial ecology (Salem, Oregon); Dr J. K. Lowry, marine biology (Australian Museum, co-ordinator); Dr G. C. B. Poore, marine biology (National Museum of Victoria); and Mr R. W. Ricker, botany (University of Melbourne).