Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-skm99 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T12:17:29.672Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Freshwater acidification: its effects on species and communities of freshwater microbes, plants and animals

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 December 2011

Ivar P. Muniz
Ivar P. Muniz
Affiliation:
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1037, Blindern, N-0315 Oslo 3, Norway
Get access

Synopsis

Acidification in geologically-sensitive areas subject to appreciable acidic deposition has affected the activities of microbes, plants and animals in poorly-buffered freshwater ecosystems in Europe and N. America. Biota can be influenced directly by changes in water quality during both short acidic episodes and longer-term sustained periods of acidification: they are affected indirectly by alterations to the balance of acid-sensitive and acid-tolerant species at different trophic levels sometimes leading to a lessening of grazing pressures. Together the chemical and biological alterations result in adverse effects on some biogeochemical processes including the increased mobilisation and leaching of biologically active elements such as mercury, copper and zinc. Many field observations have now been corroborated by field (whole-lake) and laboratory experiments.

Decomposition of organic matter, attributable to microbes, has been found to be affected adversely at some locations. Conspicuously, acidification favours the prolific growth of filamentous algae particularly species of Mougeolia: it also shifts the balance of diatoms, minimising the occurrence of circumneutral species and favouring that of acidophilous and acidobiontic types. Because of their ‘resistant’ siliceous skeletons, it has been possible to trace the historical progression of acidification by examining the remains of diatoms in sediment accumulations. While their species diversity is significantly decreased, the biomass and productivity of dinoflagellates and chrysophytes are only slightly affected.

Like that of phytoplankton (dinoflagellates, chrysophytes and some diatoms), the species diversity of zooplankton is significantly decreased by acidification which has variable effects on the biomass and productivity of the group as a whole: the loss of daphnids is particularly conspicuous. Of the benthic macroinvertebrates, snails, crayfish, clams and freshwater shrimps (amphipods) have been found to be acid-sensitive whereas dragonflies and water boatmen (corixids) increase, particularly where populations of predetory fish have decreased.

Acidification has been responsible for the loss of fish from significant parts of Norway and Sweden: losses, partial or complete, have also been documented in geologically-sensitive areas of the U.K. and other parts of Europe, also Canada and the U.S.A. Eels seem to be the least sensitive to acidic conditions, followed by pike, trout, minnow and roach — the latter being the most sensitive. Prior to being eliminated, populations of fish become unbalanced because of recruitment failure and the mean age, and sometimes size, of the survivors increases. Accumulations of manganese and mercury have been detected in fish taken from acidified freshwaters. Short-term events (episodes) of extreme acidity and/or large concentrations of water-soluble aluminium have led to major fish kills.

The development of embryonic and larval stages of amphibians, including the common frog, toad and natterjack toad, is acid-sensitive. The distribution of fish-eating birds may be influenced by the effects of acidification on the performance of their prey. That of the dipper, a riverine bird, as well as its breeding success, has been restricted where acidification has decreased the availability of its macroinvertebrate prey. Deleterious effects on fish-eating mammals of reduced supplies of prey, sometimes with accumulations of mercury and cadmium and attributable directly and indirectly to acidification, have not, as yet, been confirmed.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section B: Biological Sciences , Volume 97: Acidic Deposition: Its Nature and Impacts , 1990 , pp. 227 - 254
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Society of Edinburgh 1990

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Albers, P. H. & Proutry, R. M. 1987. Survival of spotted salamander eggs in temporary woodland ponds in coastal Maryland. Environmental Pollution 46, 45–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alibone, M. R. & Fair, P. 1981. The effects of low pH on the respiration of Daphnia magna Straus. Hydrobiologia 85, 185–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almer, B. 1972. Effects of acidification on fish populations in lakes on the Swedish west coast. Institute of Freshwater Research Drottningholm, Information 12, 1–47.Google Scholar
Almer, B., Dickson, W., Ekström, C., Hörnström, E. & Miller, U. 1974. Effect of acidification on Swedish lakes. Ambio 3, 30–6.Google Scholar
Almer, B., Dickson, W. T., Ekström, C. & Hörnström, E. 1978. Sulphur pollution and the aquatic ecosystem. In Sulphur in the Environment, pp. 272–311, ed. Nriagu, J. O. New York: Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Andersen, R., Muniz, I. P. & Skurdal, J. 1984. Effects of acidification on age class composition in arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus (L.)) and brown trout (Salmo trutta (L.)) in a coastal area, southwest Norway, Report Institute of Freshwater Research Drottningholm 61, 5–15.Google Scholar
Anderson, P. & Borg, H. 1988. Effects of liming on the distribution of cadmium in water, sediment, and organisms in a Swedish lake. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 45, 1154–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andersson, G. 1985. Decomposition of alder leaves in acid lake waters. Ecological Bulletin 37, 293–9.Google Scholar
Anon. 1972. Sweden's Case Study for the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment: Air Pollution Across National Boundaries. The Impact on the Environment of Sulfur in Air and Precipitation, Stockholm.Google Scholar
Appelberg, M. 1985. Changes in haemolymph ion concentrations of Astacus astacus L. and Pacifastacus lenuisculus (Dana) after exposure to low pH and aluminium. Hydrobiologia 121, 19–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arvola, L., Salonen, K., Bergström, I., Heinänen, A. & Ojala, A. 1986. Effects of experimental acidification on phyto-, bacterio- and zooplankton of a highly humic lake. Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie 71, 737–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, J. P. & Schofield, C. L. 1982. Aluminium toxicity to fish in acidic waters. Waters, Air and Soil Pollution 18, 289–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, J. P. & Schofield, C. L. 1985. Acidification impacts on fish populations. A review. In Acid Deposition — Environmental, Economic, and Policy Issues, pp. 183–221, eds Adams, D. D. & Page, W. P. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Battarbee, R. W. 1984. Diatom analysis and the acidification of lakes. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London 305B, 451–77.Google Scholar
Baker, J. P., Flower, R. J., Stevenson, A. C. & Rippey, B. 1985. Lake acidification in Galloway: A paleoecological test of competing hypotheses. Nature 341, 350–2.Google Scholar
Baker, J. P., Mason, J., Renberg, I. & Tailing, J. F. (eds) 1990. Paleolimnology and Lake Acidification. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London 327B, pp. 223–45.Google Scholar
Beamish, R. J. 1970. Factors affecting the age and size of white suckers at maturity. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar
Beamish, R. J. 1974. Growth and survival of white suckers (Catostomus commersoni) in an acidified lake. Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada 31, 49–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beamish, R. J. & Harvey, H. H. 1972. Acidification of the LaCloche Mountain Lakes, Ontario, and resulting fish mortalities. Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada 29, 1131–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beamish, R. J., Lockhart, W. L., Van Loon, J. C. & Harvey, H. H. 1975. Long-term acidification of a lake and resulting effects on fishes. Ambio 4, 98–102.Google Scholar
Beebee, T. J. C., Flower, R. J., Stevenson, A. C., Patrick, S.T, Appelby, P. G., Fletcher, C. I., Marsh, C., Natanski, J., Rippey, B. & Battarbee, R. W. 1990. Decline of the natterjack toad, Bufo calamita, in Britain: Palaeoecological, documentary and experimental evidence for breeding site acidification. Biological Conservation 53, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beggs, G. L., Gunn, J. M. & Olver, C. H. 1985. The sensitivity of Ontario lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and lake trout lakes to acidification. Ontario Fisheries Technical Report Series 13, 1–27.Google Scholar
Bendell-Young, L. I. & Harvey, H. H. 1986. Metal concentration and calcification in bone of white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) in relation to lake pH. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 30, 657–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berrill, M., Hollett, L., Margosian, A. & Hudson, J. 1985. Variation in tolerance to low environmental pH by the crayfish Orconectes rusticus, O. propinquus and Carambus robustus. Canadian Journal of Zoology 63, 2585–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bevanger, K. & Albu, O. 1986. Decrease in Norwegian feral mink Mustela vison population — A response to acid precipitation? Biological Conservation 38, 75–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bick, H. & Drews, E. F. 1973. Self purification and silicate communities in an acid milieu (model experiments). Hydrobiologia 42, 393–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blancher, P. J. & McNicol, D. K. 1988. Breeding biology of tree swallows in relation to wetland acidity. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66, 842–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, C. E., McDonald, D. G., Simons, B. P. & Wood, C. M. 1988. Effects of aluminum and low pH on net ion fluxes and ion balance in the brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 45, 1563–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boylen, C. W., Schick, M. D., Roberts, D. A. & Singer, R. 1983. Microbiological survey of Adirondack lakes with various pH values. Applied Environmental Microbiology 45, 1538–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bravington, M. V., Rosenberg, A. A., Andersen, R., Muniz, I. P. & Beddington, J. R. 1990. Modelling and quantitative analysis of the impact of water quality on the dynamics of fish populations. In The Surface Waters Acidification Programme, pp. 467–76, ed. Mason, B. J. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, P. G. C. & Stokes, P. M. 1985. Acidification and toxicity of metals to aquatic biota. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42, 2034–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, J. C. H., Taylor, W. D., Chengalath, R. & Scruton, D. A. 1986. Limnetic zooplankton assemblages in Atlantic Canada with special reference to acidification. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43, 444–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chamier, A. C. 1987. The effects of pH on microbial degradation of leaf litter in seven streams in the English Lake District. Oecologia 71, 491–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, K. L. & Euler, D. 1982. The importance of pH and habitat disturbance in amphibian distributions in central Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Lakeshore Capacity Study Technical Report. Toronton: O.M.N.R.Google Scholar
Clymo, R. S. 1984. Spagnum-dominated peat bog: a naturally acid ecosystem. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London 305B, 487–99.Google Scholar
Cronberg, G., Lindmark, G. & Björk, S. 1988. Mass development of the flagellate Gonyostumum semen (Raphidophyta) in Swedish forest lakes — a effect of acidification. Hydrobiologia 161, 217–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, C. P. & Ross, A. 1986. Effects of Acidification of Natural Waters on Amphibia. Final Report to the Commission of the European Communities EV3V 907 UK(H) Brussels: CEC.Google Scholar
Davies, I. J. 1989. Population collapse of the crayfish Orconectes virilis in response to experimental whole-lake acidification. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 46, 910–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DesGranges, J.-L. & Hunter, M. L. 1987. Duckling response to lake acidification. Transactions North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 52, 636–44.Google Scholar
Dickson, W. 1975. The acidification of Swedish lakes. Report Institute of Freshwater Research Drottningholm 54, 8–20.Google Scholar
Dillon, P. J., Yan, N. D., Scheider, W. A. & Conroy, N. 1979. Acidic lakes in Ontario Canada: Characterization, extent and responses to base and nutrient additions. Archive für Hvdrobiologie 13, 317–36.Google Scholar
Dillon, P. J., Yan, N. D. & Harvey, H. H. 1984. Acidic deposition: Effects on aquatic ecosystems. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control 13, 167–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Driscoll, C. T., Baker, J. P., Bisogni, J. J. & Schofield, C. L. 1980. Effects of aluminium on fish in dilute acidified waters. Nature 284, 161–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Driscoll, C. T., Ayling, W. A., Fordham, G. F. & Oliver, L. M. 1989. Chemical response of lakes treated with CaCO3 to reacidification. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 46, 258–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engblom, E. & Lingdell, P. 1984. The mapping of short-term acidification with the help of biological pH indicators. Institute of Freshwater Research Droltningholm Report 61, 60–68.Google Scholar
Erikson, F., Hörnström, E., Mossberg, P. & Nyberg, P. 1983. Ecological effects of lime treatment of acidified lakes and rivers in Sweden. Hydrobiologia 101, 145–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eriksson, M. O. G. 1984. Acidification of lakes: Effects on waterbirds in Sweden. Ambio 13, 260–2.Google Scholar
Eriksson, M. O. G., Henrikson, L.. Nilsson, B.-I., Nyman, G., Oscarson, H. G., Stenson, A. E. & Larsson, K. 1990. Predator–prey relations important for the biotic changes in acidified lakes. Ambio 9, 248–9.Google Scholar
Evans, R. E., Brown, S. B. & Hara, T. J. 1988. The effects of aluminium and acid on the gill morphology in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Environmental Biology of Fishes 22, 229–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fagerström, T. & Järneløv, A. 1972. Some aspects of the quantitative ecology of mercury. Water Research 6 1193–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiance, S. B. 1978. Effects of pH on the biology and distribution of Ephemerella funeralis. (Ephemeroptera). Oikos 31, 332–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, D. L. & Kasian, S. E. M. 1986. Phytoplankton community responses to acidification of Lake 223, Experimental Lake Area, Northwestern Ontario. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 30, 719–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fivelstad, S. & Leivestad, H. 1984. Aluminium toxicity to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): Mortality and physiological response. Report Institute of Freshwater Research Drottningholm 61, 69–77.Google Scholar
France, R. L. 1984. Comparative tolerance to low pH of three life stages of the crayfish Oronectes virilis. Canadian Journal of Zoology 62, 2360–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
France, R. L. 1987. Reproductive impairment of the crayfish Orconecles virilis in response to acidification of Lake 223. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 44 (Supplement 1), 97–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
France, R. L. & Stokes, P. M. 1987. Life stage and population resistance and tolerance of Hyalella azteca (Amphipoda) to low pH. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 44, 1102–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Francis, A. J., Quinby, H. L. & Hendrey, G. R. 1984. Effect of lake pH on microbial decomposition of allochthonous litter. In Early Biotic Responses to Advancing Lake Acidification, pp. 1–21, ed. Hendrey, G. R. Boston: Butterworth.Google Scholar
Fraser, G. A. & Harvey, H. H. 1982. Elemental composition of bone from white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) in relation to lake acidification. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 39, 1289–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freda, J. 1986. The influence of acidic pond water on amphibians. A review. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 30, 439–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freda, J. & McDonald, D. G. 1990. The effects of aluminum on the leopard frog, Rana pipiens: Life stage comparisons and aluminum uptake. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47, 210–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friberg, F., Otto, C. & Svensson, B. 1990. Effects of acidification on the dynamics of allochthonus leaf material and benthic invertebrate communities in running water. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 304–5, eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo, Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Gascon, C. & Bider, J. R. L. 1985. The effect of pH on the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, and the green frog, Rana clamitans melanota, tadpoles. Canadian Field Naturalist 99, 259–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glooschenko, V., Weller, W., Smith, P. G. R., Alvo, R. & Archbold, J. 1988. Amphibian distribution with respect to pond water chemistry near Sudbury, Ontario. Wildlife Branch, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Technical Report. Toronto: O.M.N.R.Google Scholar
Grahn, O. 1986. Vegetation structure and primary production in acidified lakes in southwestern Sweden. Experientia 42, 465–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grahn, O., Hultberg, H. & Landner, L. 1974. Oligotrophication — A self-accelerating process in lakes subjected to excessive supply of acid substaces. Ambio 3 93–4.Google Scholar
Griffiths, R. W. 1987. Acidification as a model for the response of aquatic communities to stress. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Waterloo, Canada.Google Scholar
Gunn, J. M. 1989. Survival of lake charr (Salvelinus namaycush) embryos under pulse exposure to acidic runoff water. In Aquatic Toxicology and Water Quality Management, pp. 23–45, ed. Nriagu, J. A. New York: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Gunn, J. M., & Keller, W. 1990. Biological recovery of an acid lake after reductions in industrial emissions of sulphur. Nature 345, 431–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagström, T. 1977. The disappearance of the frogs from an acidified lake. Sveriges Natur 11/17, 367–9.Google Scholar
Håkanson, L. 1980. The quantitative impact of pH, bioproduction and Hg-contamination on the Hg-content offish (pike). Environmental Pollution B, 1, 285–90.Google Scholar
Haines, T. A. & Baker, J. P. 1986. Evidence offish population responses to acidification in the eastern United States. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 31, 605–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, R. J. & Ide, F. P. 1987. Evidence of acidification effects on stream insect communities in central Ontario betwee 1937 and 1985. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 44, 1652–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, R. J., Likens, G. E., Fiance, S. B. & Hendrey, G. R. 1980. Experimental acidification of a stream in Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. Ecology 61, 976–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, P. W. 1987. Acid rain and waterfowl: The case for concern in North America. The Izaak Walton League of America, Arlington, Virginia, pp. 1–39.Google Scholar
Harriman, R. & Morrison, B. R. S. 1982. Ecology of streams draining forested and non-forested catchments in an area of central Scotland subject to acid precipitation. Hydrobiologia 88, 251–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harriman, R., Morrison, B. R. S., Caines, L. A., Collen, P. & Watt, A. W. 1987. Long-term changes in fish populations of acid streams and lochs in Galloway South West Scotland. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 32, 89–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harvey, H. H. 1982. Population Responses of Fish in Acidified Waters. In Acid Rain/Fisheries, pp. 227–42, ed. Johnson, R. E. Bethesda: American Fisheries Society.Google Scholar
Harvey, H. H. & Lee, C. 1980. Fishes of the LaCloche Mountain lakes of Ontario 1965–1980. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Report, pp. 1–89. Toronto: O.M.N.R.Google Scholar
Harvey, H. H. & Lee, C. 1982. Historical fisheries changes related to surface water pH changes in Canada. In Acid Rain/Fisheries, pp. 45–55. ed. Johnson, R. E. Bethesda: American Fisheries Society.Google Scholar
Harvey, H. H., Dillon, P. J., Kramer, J. R., Pierce, R. C. & Welpdale, D. M. 1981. Acidification in the Canadian Environment. Scientific criteria for an assessment of the effects of acidic deposition on aquatic ecosystems. National Research Council of Canada Publication No. 18475, 1–369.Google Scholar
Havas, M. & Likens, G. E. 1985. Toxicity of aluminum and hydrogen ions to Daphnia magna, Holopedium gibberum, Chaoborus punctipennis, and Chironomus antrocinus from Mirror Lake, New Hampshire. Canadian Journal of Zoology 63, 1114–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havens, K. E. & DeCosta, J. 1987. The role of aluminum contamination in determining phytoplankton and zooplankton responses to acidification. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 33, 277–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hendrey, G. H. 1976. The effects of pH on the growth of periphytic algae in artificial stream channels. SNSF project Report IR 25/76, 1–50.Google Scholar
Henriksen, A. 1980. Acidification of freshwaters — a large scale tritration. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 68–74, eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A., Oslo, Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Henriksen, A., Lien, L., Rosseland, B. O., Traaen, T. S. & Sevaldrud, I. H. 1989. Lake acidification in Norway: Present and predicted fish status. Ambio 18, 314–21.Google Scholar
Herrmann, J. 1987. Aluminium impact of freshwater invertebrates at low pH: A review: In Speciation of Metals in Water, Sediment, and Soils. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, pp. 157–75, ed. Landner, L., vol. 11. Berlin: Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
Herrmann, J. 1990. Physiological, foodchain and ecological effects among benthic invertebrates exposed to low pH and associated metal concentration. In The Surface Waters Acidification Programme, pp. 383–96, ed. Mason, B. J. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hobaek, A. & Raddum, G. G. 1980. Zooplankton communities in acidified lakes in South Norway. SNSF Report IR 75/80, 1–132.Google Scholar
Howell, E. T. 1988. Ecology, of periphyton associated with Isoetid plants in low alkalinity lakes. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar
Howells, G., Dalziel, T. R. K., Reader, J. P. & Solbe, J. R. 1990. EIFAC Water Quality Criteria for European Freshwater Fish: Report on aluminium. In Chemistry and Ecology, vol. 4, pp. 117–73. London: Gordon and Breach Publishers Inc.Google Scholar
Hultberg, H. 1977. Betydelsen av pH, humus -och saltinnehâll i sjövatten för kvicksilverförekomst i gädda. (The significance of pH, humus and salt content in lakewater for the presence of mercury in pike.) Institutet för Vatten och Luftvârdsforskning, 1–9.Google Scholar
Hultberg, H. & Andersson, I. 1982. Liming of acidifed lakes: Induced long-term changes. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 18, 311–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hultberg, H. & Stenson, J. 1970. The effects of acidification on the fish fauna in two small lakes in Bohuslän County, Sweden. Fauna och Flora 1, 11–19. (in Swedish).Google Scholar
Hunter, M. L., Jones, J. J., Gibbs, K. W. & Moring, J. R. 1986. Duckling responses to lake acidification: Do black ducks and fish compete? Oikos 47, 26–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, W. R. 1964. Physiological aspects of ecology of non-marine molluscs. In Phvsiology of Mollusca, Vol. 2. pp. 83–126, eds Wilbur, K. M. & Yonge, C. M. New York and London: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchinson, N. J. & Sprague, J. B. 1986. Toxicity of trace metal mixtures to American flagfish (Jordanella floridae) in soft, acidic water and implications for cultural acidification. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43, 647–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, S. T. & Charles, D. R. 1988. Aquatic macrophytes in Adirondack (New York) lakes: Patterns of species composition in relation to environment. Canadian Journal of Botany 66, 1449–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jansson, M., Persson, G. & Broberg, O. 1986. Phosphorus in acidified lakes: The example of Lake Gârdsjön, Sweden. Hydrobiologia 139, 81–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, K. W. & Snekvik, E. 1972. Low pH levels wipe out salmon and trout populations in southernmost Norway. Ambio 1, 223–5.Google Scholar
Keller, W., Pitblado, J. R. & Conroy, N. I. 1986. Water quality improvements in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada area related to reduced smelter emissions. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 31, 765–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lacroix, G. L. & Townsend, D. R. 1987. Responses of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) to episodic increases in acidity of Nova Scotia rivers. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 44, 1475–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lazarek, S. 1986. Responses of the Lobelia-epiphyte complex to liming of an acidified lake. Aquatic Botany 25, 73–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaZerte, B. D. 1984. Forms of aqueous aluminum in acidified catchments of south-central Ontario. A methodological analysis. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 41, 766–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leino, R. L., Wilkinson, P. & Anderson, J. G. 1987. Histopathological changes in the gill of pearl dace. Semotilus marginata, and fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas, from experimentally acidified Canadian lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 44, 126–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leivestad, H. & Muniz, I. P. 1976. Fish kill at low pH in a Norwegian river. Nature 259(5542), 391–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leivestad, H., Hendrey, G. H., Muniz, I. P. & Snekvik, E. 1976. Effects of acid precipitation on freshwater organisms. In Impact of acid precipitation on forest and freshwater systems in Norway, S.N.S.F. project FR 6/76, pp. 87–111, ed. Brekke, F. H. Oslo-Ås, Norway: SNSF-project.Google Scholar
Lemly, A. D. & Smith, R. J. F. 1987. Effects of chronic exposure to acidified water on chemoreception of feeding stimuli in fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas): Mechanisms and ecological implications. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 6, 225–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lockhart, W. L. & Lutz, A. 1977. Preliminary biochemical observations of fishes inhabiting an acidified lake in Ontario, Canada. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 7, 317–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacIsaac, H. J., Hutchinson, & Keller, W. 1987. Analysis of planktonic rotifer assemblages from Sudbury, Ontario, area lakes of varying chemical composition. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 44, 1692–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackay, R. J. & Kersey, K. E. 1985. A preliminary study of aquatic insect communities and leaf decomposition in acid streams near Dorset, Ontario. Hydrobiologia 122, 3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackie, G. L. 1987. Effects of acidifying environments on freshwater molluscs in southern Ontario. American Malacological Bulletin 5, 31–9.Google Scholar
Malley, D. F. 1980. Decreased survival and calcium uptake by the crayfish Orconectes virilis in low pH. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37, 364–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malley, D. F. & Chang, P. S. S. 1986. Increase in the abundance of cladocera at pH 5.1 in experimentally-acidified Lake 223, Experimental Lakes Area, Ontario. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 30, 629–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malley, D. F., Findlay, D. L. & Chang, P. S. S. 1982. Ecological effects of acid precipitation of zooplankton. In Acid Precipitation: Effects on Ecological Systems, pp. 297–327, ed. D'Itri, F. M. Michigan: Ann Arbor Science.Google Scholar
Marmorek, D. R., Bernard, D. P., Jones, M. L., Rattie, L. P. & Sullivan, T. J. 1988. The effects of mineral acid deposition on concentrations of dissolved organic acids in surface waters. United States Environmental Protection Agency, ERL-COR-500AP, pp. 1–110. Corvallis, Oregon: EPA.Google Scholar
Martin, H. C. 1986. Acid Precipitation. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Acidic Precipitation, Muskoka, Ontario, September 15–20, 1985, ed. Martin, H. C. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 30 & 31, 1–1045, 1–1109.Google Scholar
Matthias, U. 1983. Der Einfluss der Versauerung auf die Zusammen setzung von Bergbachbiozönosen. Archive für Hydrobiologie Supplement 65, 405–83.Google Scholar
Matuszek, J. E. & Beggs, G. L. 1988. Fish species richness in relation to lake area, pH, and other abiotic factors in Ontario lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 45, 1931–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAuley, D. G. & Longcore, J. R. 1988. Foods of juvenile ringnecked ducks: Relationship to wetland pH. Journal of Wildlife Management 52, 177–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinley, V. L. & Vestal, J. R. 1982. The effects of acid on litter decomposition in an Arctic Lake. In Annales American Society of Microbiology, Abstract N-17.Google Scholar
McMurty, M. J., Wales, D. L., Scheider, W. A., Beggs, G. L. & Dimond, P. E. 1989. Relationship of mercury concentrations in lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui) to the physical and chemical characteristics of Ontario lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 46, 426–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNichol, D. K., Bendells, B. E. & McAuley, D. 1987. Avian trophic relationships and wetland acidity. Transactions North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 52, 619.Google Scholar
McWilliams, P. G. & Potts, W. T. W. 1978. The effects of pH and calcium concentrations on gill potentials in the brown trout, Salmo trutta. Journal of Comparative Physiology 126, 277–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills, K. H., Chalanchuk, S. M., Mohr, L. C. & Davies, I. J. 1987. Responses of fish populations in Lake 223 to 8 years of experimental acidification. Canadian Journal of Fisheries anil Aquatic Sciences 44 (Supplement 1), 114–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minshall, G. W. & Minshall, J. N. 1978. Further evidence on the role of chemical factors in determining the distribution of benthic invertebrates in the River Duddon. Archive für Hydrobiologie 83, 324–55.Google Scholar
Morrison, B. 1989. Freshwater life in acid streams and lochs. In Acidification in Scotland, pp. 82–91, Edinburgh: Scottish Development Department.Google Scholar
Mossberg, P. 1979. Benthos of oligotrophic and acid lakes. Information, Institute of Freshwater Research Drottningholm 11, 1–40.Google Scholar
Mount, D. R., Breck, J. E., Christensen, S. W., Gern, W. A., Marcus, M. D., Ingersoll, C. G., Gulley, D. D., McDonald, D. G., Parkhurst, B. R., VanWinkle, W., Wood, C. M. & Bergman, H. L. 1989. Physiologic, toxicologic, and population responses of brook trout to acidification. Interim Report of the Lake Acidification and Fisheries Project. Palo Alto, California: Electric Power Research Institute.Google Scholar
Mulholland, P. J., Elwood, J. W., Palumbo, A. V. & Stevensson, R. J. 1986. Effect of stream acidification on periphyton composition, chlorophyll, and productivity. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43, 1846–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muniz, I. P. 1981. Acidification and the Norwegian Salmon. In Acid Rain and the Atlantic Salmon. International Atlantic Salmon Foundation Special Publication 10, 66–71.Google Scholar
Muniz, I. P. 1984. The effects of acidification on Scandinavian freshwater fish fauna. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London 305B, 517–28.Google Scholar
Muniz, I. P. & Leivestad, H. 1976. Long term exposure of fish to acid water. Experiments with brook trout (Salvlinus fontinalis Mitchill). S.N.S.F Project Report IR 44/79, 1–32.Google Scholar
Muniz, I. P. & Leivestad, H. 1980. Acidification — effects on freshwater fish. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 84–92, eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo. Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Muniz, I. P. & Walløe, L. 1990. The influence of water quality and catchment characteristics on the survival of fish populations. In The Surface Waters Acidification Programme, ed. Mason, B. J., pp. 327–339. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Munthe Kaas Lund, H. 1969. Crayfish in Norway, its habitat requirements and commercial aspects. Fauna, Oslo 22, 177–88.Google Scholar
Nero, R. W. & Schindler, D. W. 1983. Decline of Mysis relicta during the acidification of Lake 223. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 40, 1905–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholls, K. H., Beaver, J. L. & Easterbrokk, R. H. 1982. Lakewide odours in Ontario and New Hampshire caused by Chrysocromulina breviturrita Nich. (Prymnesiophyceae). Hydrobiolgia 96, 91–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nilssen, J. P. 1980. Acidification of a small watershed in southern Norway and some characteristics of acidic aquatic environment. Internationalen Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie 65, 177–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nriagu, J. O. & Pacyna, J. M. 1988. Qualitative assessment of worldwide contamination of air, water and soils by trace metals. Nature 333, 134–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nyberg, P. 1984. Effects of liming on fisheries. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London 305B, 549–60.Google Scholar
Nyberg, P., Appelberg, M. & Degerman, E. 1986. Effects of liming on crayfish and fish in Sweden. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 31, 669–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nyholm, N. E. I. 1982. Evidence of involvement of aluminum in causation of defective formation of eggshells and of impaired breeding in wild passerine birds. Environmental Research 26, 363–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odum, E. P. 1985. Tends expected in stressed ecosystems. BioScience 35, 419–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Økland, J. 1983. Factors regulating the distribution of freshwater snails (Gastropoda) in Norway. Malacologia 24, 227–88.Google Scholar
Økland, J. 1990. Lakes and Snails. Environment and Gastropoda in 1.500 Norwegian lakes, ponds and rivers. Oegstgeest, The Netherlands: Universal Book Services/Dr. W. Backhuys.Google Scholar
Økland, J. & Økland, K. A. 1986. Effects of acid deposition on benthic animals in lakes and streams. Experientia 42, 471–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Økland, K. A. & Økland, J. 1985. Factor interaction influencing the distribution of the freshwater “shrimp” Gammarus. Oecologia 66, 364–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ormerod, S. J. & Tyler, S. J. 1987. Dippers (Cinclus cinclus) and grey wagtails (Motacilla cinerea) as indicators of stream acidity in upland Wales. In The Value of Birds, ICBP Technical Publications, (No. 6), pp. 191–208, eds Diamond, A. W. & Filion, F. L. Cambridge: International Council for Bird Preservation.Google Scholar
Ormerod, S. J., O'Halloran, J., Gribbin, S. D. & Tyler, S. J. 1991. The ecology of dippers Cinclus cinclus in relation to stream acidity in upland Wales: breeding performance, calcium physiology and resulting growth. Journal of Applied Biology, 28.Google Scholar
Ormerod, S. J., Allison, N., Hudson, D. & Tyler, S. J. 1986. The distribution of breeding dippers (Cinclus cinclus L; Aves) in relation to stream acidity in upland Wales. Freshwater Biology 16, 501–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ormerod, S. J., Boole, P., McCahon, C. P., Weatherley, N. S., Pascoe, D. & Edwards, R. W. 1987. Short-term experimental acidification of a Welsh stream: Comparing the biological effects of hydrogen ions and aluminium. Freshwater Biology 17, 341–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ormerod, S. J., Bull, K. R., Cummins, C. P., Tyler, S. J. & Vickery, J. A. 1989. Egg mass and shell thickness in dippers in relation to stream acidity in Wales and Scotland. Environmental Pollution 55, 107–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Overrein, L. N., Seip, H. M. & Tollan, A. 1980. Acid Precipitation — Effects on Forest and Fish. Final Report of the SNSF Project, 1972–1980, Oslo-Ås: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Peterson, R. H., Daye, P. G. & Metcalfe, J. L. 1980. Inhibition of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) hatching at low pH. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37, 770–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peverly, R. H. 1984. Macrophytes and wetland plants. In The Acidic Deposition Phenomenon and its Effects: Critical Assessment Review Paper, Vol. 2, Ch. 5, pp. 37–43, eds Altshuller, A. P. & Linthurst, R. A. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.Google Scholar
Potts, W. T. W. & Fryer, G. 1979. The effects of pH and salt content on sodium balance in Daphnia magna and Acantholeberis curvirostris (Crustacea: Cladocera). Joural of Comparative Physiology 129, 289–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pough, F. H. 1976. Acid precipitation and embryonic mortality of spotted salamanders, Ambystoma maculatum. Science 192, 68–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pough, F. H. & Wilson, R. E. 1977. Acid precipitation and reproductive success of Ambystoma salamanders. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 7, 307–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, E. E. & Swift, M. C. 1985. Inter- and Intra-specific variability in the response of zooplankton to acid stress. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42, 1749–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raddum, G. G. 1980. Comparison of benthic invertebrates in lakes of different acidity. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 330–31, eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo, Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Raddum, G. G. & Fjellheim, A. 1984. Acidification and early warning organisms in freshwater in western Norway. Verhandlungen Internationale Vereinigung für Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie 22, 1973–80.Google Scholar
Raddum, G. G., Hobaek, A., Lømsland, E. R. & Johnsen, T. 1980. Phytoplankton and zooplankton in acidified lakes in South Norway. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Biological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 332–3, eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo, Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Raddum, G. G., Brettum, P.. Matzow, D., Nilssen, J. P., Skov, A., Sveälv, T. & Wright, R. F. 1986. Liming the acid Lake Hovvatn, Norway: A whole-lake study. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 31, 721–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, S. S. & Dutka, B. J. 1983. Influence of acid precipitation on bacterial populations in lakes. Hydrobiologia 98, 153–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ravera, O. 1986. Effects of experimental acidification on freshwater environments. Experientia 42, 507–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reader, J. P., Dalziel, T. R. K. & Morris, R. 1988. Growth, mineral uptake and skeletal calcium deposition in brown trout, Salmo trutta L., yolk-sac fry exposed to aluminium and manganese in soft acid water. Journal of Fish Biology 32, 607–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, D. A. 1984. Macrophytes. In Biological Field Survey of Northeastern Acidified Lakes. Final Report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, pp. 33–8, eds Singer, R. & Boylen, C. W. Troy, New York: EPA.Google Scholar
Roelfs, J. G. M. 1983. Impact of acidification and eutrophication on macrophyte communities in soft waters in the Netherlands, I, Field observations. Aquatic Botany 17, 139–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roelfs, J. G. M. 1984. Impact of acidification and eutrophication on macrophyte communities in soft waters in the Netherlands, II. Experimental studies. Aquatic Botany 18, 489–511.Google Scholar
Roff, J. C. & Kwiatkowski, R. E. 1977. Zooplankton and zoobenthos communities of selected northern Ontario lakes of different acidities. Canadian Journal of Zoology 55, 899–911.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rooke, J. B. & Mackie, G. L. 1984. Growth and production of three species of molluscs in six low alkalinity lakes in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Zoology 62, 1474–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosseland, B. O. 1980. Physiological responses to acid water in fish. 2. Effects of acid water on metabolism and gill ventilation in brown trout, Salmo trutta L., and brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis Mitchill. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 348–9. eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo, Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Rosseland, B. O., Sevaldrud, I., Svalastog, D. & Muniz, I. P. 1980. Studies of freshwater fish populations — Effects on reproduction, population structure, growth and food selection. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 336–7. eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo, Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Ryan, P. M. & Harvey, H. H. 1980. Growth responses of yellow perch, Perca flavecens (Mitchill), to lake acidification in the LaCloche Mountain Lakes of Ontario. Environmental Biology of Fishes 5, 97–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheider, W., Adamski, J. & Paylor, M. 1975. Reclamation of acidified lakes near Sudbury. Ontario. Ontario Ministry of the Environment Report, 1–129. Rexdale: OME.Google Scholar
Schindler, D. W. 1988. Effects of acid rain on freshwater ecosystems. Science 239, 149–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schindler, D. W. & Turner, M. A. 1982. Biological, chemical and physical responses to experimental acidification. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 18, 259–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schindler, D. W., Neills, K. H., Malley, D. F., Findlay, D. L., Shearer, J. A., Davies, I. J., Turner, M. A., Linsey, G. A. & Cruikshank, D. R. 1985. Long-term ecosystem stress: The effects of years of experimental acidification on a small lake. Science 228, 1395–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schofield, C. L. & Driscoll, C. T. 1987. Fish species distribution in relation to water quality gradients in the North Branch of the Moose River Basin. Biogeochemistry 3, 63–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schofield, K., Townsend, C. R. & Hildrew, A. G. 1988. Predation and the prey community of a headwater stream. Freshwater Biology 20, 85–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sevaldrud, I. H., Muniz, I. P. & Kalvenes, S. 1980. Loss of fish populations in Southern Norway. Dynamics and magnitude of the problem. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 350–51, eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo. Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Siegfrid, C. A., Bloomfield, J. A. & Sutherland, J. W. 1989a. Acidity status and phytoplankton species richness, standing crop and community composition in Adirondack, New York, U.S.A., lakes. Hydrobiologia 175, 13–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegfrid, C. A., Bloomfield, J. A. & Sutherland, J. W. 1989b. Planktonic rotifer community structure in Adirondack, New York, U.S.A. lakes in relation to acidity, trophic status and related water quality characteristics. Hydrobiologia 175, 33–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, R. 1984. Benthic organisms. In The Acidic Deposition Phenomenon and its Effects: Critical Assessment Review Paper, Vol. 2, ch. 5, pp. 14–37, Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.Google Scholar
Sloan, R. & Schofield, C. L. 1983. Mercury levels in brook trout (Salvelinus fontalis) from selected acid and limed Adirondack lakes. Northeastern Environmental Science 2, 165–70.Google Scholar
Smith, A. M. 1990. The ecophysiology of epilithic diatom communities of acid lakes in Galloway, southwest Scotland. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London 327B, 25–30.Google Scholar
Staurnes, M., Sigholt, T. & Reite, O. B. 1984. Reduced carbonic anhydrase and Na-K-ATPase activity in gills of salmonids exposed to aluminium-containing acid water. Experientia 40, 226–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stenson, J. A. E. & Eriksson, M. O. G. 1989. Ecological mechanisms important for the biotic changes in acidified lakes in Scandinavia. Archive for Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 18, 201–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephenson, M. & Mackie, G. L. 1986. Lake acidification as a limiting factor in the distribution of the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43, 288–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevenson, R. J., Singer, R., Roberts, D. A. & Boylen, C. W. 1985. Patterns of benthic algae abundance with depth, trophic status, and acidity in poorly buffered New Hampshire lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42, 1501–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, P. M. 1981. Benthic algal communities in acidic lakes. In Effects of Acidic Precipitation on Benthos. Proceedings Symposium on Acidic Precipitation and Benthos, 1980, pp. 119–38. Hamilton, New York: North American Benthological Society.Google Scholar
Stokes, P. M. 1986. Ecological effects of acidification on primary producers in aquatic systems. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 30, 421–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, P. M., Howell, E. T. & Krantzberg, G. 1989. Effects of acid precipitation on the biota of freshwater lakes. In Acidic Precipitation, Vol. 2, pp. 273–304, eds Adriano, D. C. & Johnson, A. H. New York: Springer Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strijbosch, H. 1979. Habitat selection of amphibians during their aquatic phase. Oikos 33, 363–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suns, K., Hitchin, G., Loescher, B., Pastorek, E. & Pearce, R. 1987. Metal accumulations in fishes from Muskoka-Haliburton lakes in Ontario (1978–1984). Ontario Ministry of the Environment Report, Water Resources Branch. Rexdale, Ontario: O.M.E.Google Scholar
Sutcliffe, D. W. & Carrick, T. R. 1973. Studies of mountain streams in the English Lake District. I. pH, calcium and the distribution of invertebrates in the River Duddon. Freshwater Biology 3, 437–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tessier, A. J. & Horowitz, R. J. 1988. Analysis and interpretation of zooplankton samples collected during Phase II of the National Lake Survey. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia Report 88–18, 1–313.Google Scholar
Townsend, C. R., Hildrew, A. G. & Francis, J. 1983. Community structure in some southern English streams: The influence of physiochemical factors. Freshwater Biology 13, 521–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Traaen, T. S. 1980. The effects of acidity on decomposition of organic matter in aquatic environments. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 340–41, eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo, Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Turner, M. A., Jackson, M. B., Findlay, D. L., Graham, R. W., DeBruyn, E. R. & Vandermeer, E. M. 1987. Early responses of periphyton of experimental lake acidification. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 44 (Supplement 1), 135–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turnpenny, A. W. H., Dempsey, C. H., Davis, M. H. & Fleming, J. M. 1988. Factors limiting fish populations in the Loch Fleet system, an acidic drainage system in south-west Scotland. Journal of Fish Biology 32, 101–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ultsch, G. R. & Gros, G. 1979. Mucus as a diffusion barrier to oxygen: Possible role in O2 uptake at low pH in carp (Cyprinus carpio) gills. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 62A, 685–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vangenechten, J. H. D., Witters, H. E. & Vanderborght, O. L. J. 1989. Laboratory studies on invertebrate survival and physiology. In Acid Toxicity and Aquatic Animals, pp. 153–70, ed. Morris, R. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walton, W. E., Compton, S. M., Allan, J. D. & Daniels, R. E. 1982. The effect of acid stress on survivorship and reproduction of Daphnia pulex (Crustacea: Cladocera). Canadian Journal of Zoology 60, 573–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watt, W. D., Scott, C. D. & White, W. J. 1983. Evidence of acidification of some Nova Scotian rivers and its impact on Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 40, 462–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiener, J. G. 1987. Metal contamination of fish in low-pH lakes and potential implications for piscivorous wildlife. Transactions North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 52, 645–57.Google Scholar
Wile, I., Miller, G. E., Hitchin, G. E. & Yan, N. D. 1985. Species composition and biomass of the macrophyte vegetation of one acidified and two acid-sensitive lakes in Ontario. Canadian Field Naturalist 99 (3), 308–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, T. G. & Turpin, D. H. 1987. Phytosynthetic kinetics determine the outcome of competition for dissolved inorganic carbon by freshwater microalgae: Implications for acidified lakes. Oecologica 73, 307–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, C. M. & McDonald, D. G. 1987. The physiology of acid/aluminium stress in trout. Annales de la Sociele Royale Zoologique de Belgique 117, 399–410.Google Scholar
Wright, R. 1983. Acidification of freshwater in Europe. Water Quality Bulletin 8, 137–42.Google Scholar
Wright, R. & Snekvik, E. 1977. Chemistry and fish populations in 700 lakes in southernmost Norway. S.N.S.F. Project, Technical Note TN 37/77, 1–84.Google Scholar
Wright, R., Conroy, N., Dickson, W., Harriman, R., Henriksen, A. & Schofield, C. 1980. Acidified lake districts of the world: A comparison of water chemistry of lakes in southern Norway, southern Sweden, southwestern Scotland, the Adirondack Mountains of New York, and southeastern Ontario. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Ecological Impacts of Acid Precipitation, pp. 377–9, eds Drabløs, D. & Tollan, A. Oslo, Norway: SNSF project.Google Scholar
Yan, N. D. & Stokes, P. 1978. Phytoplankton of an acid lake, and its response to experimental alterations of pH. Environmental Conservation 5, 93–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yan, N. D. & LaFrance, C. 1984. Responses of acidic and neutralized lakes near Sudbury, Ontario, to nutrient enrichment. In Environmental Impacts of Smelters, pp. 457–521, ed. Nriagu, J. O. New York: John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Yan, N. D., Miller, G. E., Wile, I. & Hitchin, G. G. 1985. Richness of aquatic macrophyte floras of soft water lakes of differing pH and metal content in Ontario, Canada. Aquatic Botany 23 27–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yan, N. D. & Strus, R. 1980. Crustacean zooplankton communities of acid metal contaminated lakes near Sudbury, Ontario. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37, 2282–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar